ANALOG CIRCUITS

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 Course outcome
• C302.3:
Apply various applications of IC 741, IC 555
and oscillator for wave shaping.

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Operational Amplifier

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 Introduction
• Various branches of electronics are: Industrial
electronics, Instrumentation, Communication,
Power electronics etc.
• Various electronic circuits used in the applications
of these branches are amplifiers, waveform
generators, timers, various arithmetic circuits
such as adder, subtractor, multipliers, Log-antilog
amplifier etc.
• One electronic device which can be used to
construct all the circuits mentioned above is
called an operational amplifier or OP-AMP.

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 OP-AMP
• Voltage amplifier using a transistor uses many
other components such as coupling and
bypass capacitors, biasing resistors etc.
• In order to get higher voltage gain, we have to
use more than one such amplifiers together.
This will make the circuit bulky.
• So people started using the amplifier in the
integrated circuit (IC) form.

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• Why it is called Operational Amplifier?
 An OP-AMP is basically an amplifier which could
be configured to perform a variety of operations
such as amplification, addition, subtraction,
differentiation and integration. Hence it is called
operational amplifier.
 OP-AMP is basically a multistage amplifier which
uses a number of amplifier stages interconnected
to each other in a complicated manner.
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• Advantages of OP-AMP over conventional
amplifier:
1. It has smaller size.
2. Its reliability is higher than conventional
amplifier.
3. Reduced cost.
4. Less power consumption.
5. Easy to replace.
6. Same OP-AMP can be used for various
applications.

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 OP-AMP Symbol and Terminals
• The OP-AMP is basically a voltage amplifier
with high voltage gain of 2 x 105 or 106 dB.

2 7
6

3 4

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 Differential Amplifier
• Operational amplifier is expected to amplify
the differential signal present between its two
input terminals.

= V1 – V2

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• Differential input signal (Vd):
The different between the input signals V1 and V2 is
called as the differential signal Vd.
∴ Vd = V1 – V2
• Common mode signal:
A common signal to both the input terminal i.e. V1 = V2
= V is called as common mode signal.
• Differential gain Ad:
Ad = Vo/ Vd
Ad (dB) = 20 log 10 [Vo/Vd]
• Common mode gain Ac:
Ac = Vo/ Vc
where Vc = (V1 + V2)/ 2
• Total output voltage Vo:
Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc

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• Common Mode Rejection ratio (CMRR):
CMRR is the ability of a differential amplifier to
reject the common mode signal successfully. It is also
called figure of merit.
∴ CMRR = ρ = |Ad/ Ac|

IB1 = 0

IB2 = 0

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 Important characteristics of Ideal
OP-AMP
1. Infinite voltage gain (AV = ∞)
2. Infinite input resistance (Ri = ∞)
3. Zero output resistance (Ro = 0)
4. Zero offset voltage:
In practical OP-AMPs a small output voltage is
present even though both the inputs V1 and V2 are
having zero value. This voltage is called as the offset
voltage.
5. Infinite bandwidth:
Bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of
frequencies over which all the signal frequencies are
amplified almost equally.
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6. Infinite CMRR
7. Infinite slew rate (S = ∞):
The slew rate is defined change in output
voltage occur simultaneously with the input
voltage changes.
8. Zero power supply rejection ratio (PSRR = 0):
PSRR is specifies the degree of
dependence of OP-AMP output, on the
changes in power supply voltage.
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Block Diagram of OP-AMP

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• The Op-AMP consists of:
1. Input stage
2. Intermediate stage
3. Level shifting stage
4. Output stage
1. Input stage:
The input stage must satisfy the following requirements:
 It must have two inputs (inverting and non-inverting)
 It must provide a very high input impedance and low output
impedance.
 It must be directly coupled amplifier and must have a very high
CMRR.
2. Intermediate stage (gain stage):
The requirements of the intermediate stage are:
 Moderately high input and output resistance.
 High voltage gain. A. A. Lande, E & TC Dept
3. Level shifting stage:
Due to the direct coupling between the first
two stages, the input of level shifting stage is an
amplified signal with some nonzero dc level.
Level shifting stage is used to bring this dc
level to zero volts with respect to ground.
4. Output stage:
Requirements of output stage:
 Low output resistance
 Large current sourcing capacity.
 Large output voltage swing.

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 OP-AMP IC 741
• This is one of the oldest and most popular OP-
AMP IC.
• Features of IC 741:
1. No frequency compensation required.
2. Short circuit protection.
3. Offset voltage null capability.
4. Large common mode and differential voltage
ranges.
5. No latch ups.

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Pin Configuration

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• Pin configuration:
IC 741 is 8 pin IC.
 Pin 1 and 5:
These pins can be used to nullify the offset voltage.
 Pin 2 and 3:
Pin number 2 and 3 are inverting and non-inverting
inputs respectively.
 Pin 4 and 7:
Pin number 7 is for connecting the positive supply
voltage +VCC while pin number 4 is to be connected to a
negative supply voltage. Thus IC 741 needs a dual polarity
power supply.
 Pin 6:
We get the output voltage at pin number 6.
 Pin 8:
Pin number 8 is a dummy pin which is not connected
anywhere and hence should be left open or unconnected.
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• Specifications:
Sr. No. Characteristics IC 741 Ideal value

1. Input resistance Ri 2 MΩ ∞

2. Output resistance Ro 75 Ω 0

3. Voltage gain AV 2 x 105 ∞

4. Bandwidth 1 MHz ∞

5. CMRR 90 dB ∞

6. Input offset voltage Vios 2 mV 0

7. Slew rate S 0.5 V/µS ∞

8. PSRR 150 µV/V 0

9. Input bias current IB 50 nA 0

10. Input offset current Iios 6 nA 0

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• Applications:
1. Inverting and non inverting amplifiers.
2. Adder, subtractor.
3. Integrator, differentiator circuits.
4. Other applications such as V to I and I to V
converter, precision rectifier, log, antilog
amplifier etc.

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 Virtual Short and Virtual Ground
• Virtual short:

I=0

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• According to virtual short concept, both the input
terminals are approximately at the same
potential.
• The output voltage of an OP-AMP is given by,
Vo = AV x Vd
where, AV = open loop gain and
Vd = Differential input voltage
∴ Vd = VO / AV
but AV = ∞ for an ideal op-amp and AV = 2 x 105
for IC 741.
• ∴ for ideal op-amp, Vd = 0. Thus the potential
difference between the input terminals is zero.

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• Virtual ground:
If the non-inverting terminal of OP-AMP is
connected to ground, then due to the “virtual
short” existing between the two input
terminals, the inverting terminal will also be at
ground potential.
Hence it is said to be at “virtual ground.”

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 Configurations of OP-AMP
• An op-amp can work in two different modes:
1. Open loop mode 2. closed loop mode
• Open loop configuration:
 The open loop configuration is that there is
absolutely no feedback present from the
output to input.

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•Closed loop configuration:
In closed loop configurations, some kind of feedback
introduced in the circuit i.e. a part of output is returned back or
fed back to the input.
There are two types of feedback:
1. Positive or regenerative feedback
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2. Negative or degenerative feedback
1. Positive feedback:
If the feedback signal or original signal are in phase with
each other then it is called as the positive feed back.
This feedback used in applications such as “oscillator”
and Schmitt trigger.
2. Negative feedback:
If the signal fed back to the input and the original input
signal are 1800 out of phase, then it is called as the negative
feedback.
It is used in applications such as an amplifier.

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 OP-AMP configurations
• Closed loop OP-AMP amplifier configurations are:
1. Inverting amplifier
2. Adder, subtractor
3. Non-inverting amplifier
4. Integrator
5. Voltage follower
6. Differentiator
7. Instrumentation amplifier
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 Inverting Amplifier
• In inverting amplifier, the signal which is to be
amplified is applied at the inverting terminal of
OP-AMP.
• The amplified output signal will be 1800 out of
phase or “inverted” with the input signal.
• As shown in fig., input signal Vin is connected to
inverting terminal via resistor R1.
• Feedback resistor Rf connected between output
and inverting terminal and non inverting terminal
connected to ground.
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IB2 = 0

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• As we know, output voltage is given by,
VO = AV x Vd
but Vd = V1 – V2
• V1 = 0 since the NI (+) terminal is connected to ground. Hence
as per virtual ground concept the INV (-) terminal is also at 0 V
potential.
∴ V2 = 0
• As Ri = ∞, the current IB2 goint into (-) terminal is zero.
• Hence current through R1 and Rf is same equal to I.
∴ Vin = I x R1 and VO = -I x Rf
• Output voltage VO = AV x Vin
∴ - IRf = AV x IR1
∴ AV = -Rf /R1
• The negative sign indicates that there is a phase shift of 1800
between the input and output voltages
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 Non- Inverting Amplifier
• In non-inverting amplifier, input signal is
applied to the non-inverting (+) terminal.
• Feedback resistor Rf is connected between
output and inverting terminal.
• Input and output voltages are in phase with
each other.
• For ideal Op-AMP, Ri = ∞, therefore the
currents entering into both the input
terminals of opamp will be zero. (I1 = I2 = 0)
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• Therefore voltage across R1 is given by,
V2 = [R1 / (Rf + R1)] x VO
• As per the virtual short concept,
V2 = V1 = Vin
∴ Vin = [R1 / (Rf + R1)] x VO
• Therefore closed loop voltage gain AV is given by,
AV = VO / Vin = (R1 + Rf) / R1
∴ AV = 1 + (Rf / R1)
• The positive sign indicates that the input and
output are in phase with each other and closed
loop gain is always greater than unity (1).
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 I2

I1

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 Summing amplifier or Adder
• If more than one input signal is applied to an
any one input terminal of OP-AMP, the circuit
will add all these input signals to produce
their addition at the output.
• Adder circuit can be classified into two
categories as:
1. Inverting adder
2. Non-inverting adder

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 Inverting Adder
• Fig. shows the inverting summing amplifier with
three inputs Vin1, Vin2 and Vin3 are applied to the
inverting terminal through resistors Rin1, Rin2 and
Rin3 respectively and Rf is the feedback resistor.
• Expression for output voltage:
 Let current through resistors Rin1, Rin2 and Rin3 be
I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
 apply KCL at node A to write,
I1 + I2 + I3 = IB2 + If ------(1)

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 But for ideal op-amp, Ri = ∞, therefore IB2 = 0 and VA = VB = 0
due to virtual ground concept.
Hence, I1 + I2 + I3 = If
From input side, I1 = (V1 - VA) / Rin1 = V1 / Rin1
Similarly, I2 = (V2 - VA) / Rin2 = V2 / Rin2
and I3 = (V3 - VA) / Rin3 = V3 / Rin3
 And from output side,
If = (VA – VO) / Rf = (- VO) / Rf
 Substituting these values in eq. 1, we get,
(V1/ Rin1) + (V2/ Rin2) + (V3 / Rin3) = (-VO / Rf)
∴ VO = - [(Rf/Rin1)V1 + (Rf/Rin2)V2 + (Rf/Rin3)V3]
 If we substitute Rf = Rin1 = Rin2 = Rin3 = R, then we get
VO = - (V1 + V2 + V3)
 Thus output voltage is the negative sum of the input voltage.
Therefore this circuit is called as “inverting adder”.

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 A

I1

I2 If

I3 IB2
B
IB1

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 Non - Inverting Adder
• An adder circuit which can produce the addition
of its input signals without inversion is called as
the non-inverting adder.
• Fig. shows the non-inverting adder with two
inputs V1 and V2.
• The output voltage is given by,
VO = V1 + V2
• The positive sign indicates that the inversion does
not take place in this adder and therefore it is
called as the non-inverting adder.

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 Difference Amplifier
• The difference amplifier and subtractor circuits are used to
obtain the subtraction of two input voltages.
• Fig. shows the difference amplifier.
• Assume V2 = 0, then circuit become non-inverting amplifier
with output voltage VO1 and it is given by,
VO1 = AV x VA
VO1 = [1 + (Rf / R1)] x [Rf / (Rf + R1)] V1
= [(R1 + Rf) / R1] x [Rf /(Rf + R1)] V1
∴ VO1 = (Rf / R1) V1
• The output voltage of the difference amplifier is given as,
VO = (Rf / R1) x (V1 – V2)
• (Rf / R1) is called as the “gain of the difference amplifier”.

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 B

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 Subtractor
• The output voltage of difference amplifier is given
by,
VO = (Rf / R1) x (V1 – V2)
• If we substitute Rf = R1 = R in above equation,
then we get,
VO = V1 – V2
• And difference amplifier gets transformed into a
subtractor.

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A. A. Lande, E & TC Dept
 Integrator
• Ideal integrator circuit:
If
f

1
IB

I1 V2
V1
IB

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• The ideal integrator circuit is obtained by replacing the
feedback resistor Rf in the inverting amplifier
configuration by “C”.
• The output voltage of integrator is:

+C

where C is integration constant and it is proportional to

output voltage VO at t = 0.

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• Practical Integrator:

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• Applications of an integrator:
1. In the triangular wave or ramp generator
2. In the analog to digital converter
3. In analog computers to solve differential
equations.
4. As a low pass filter.

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 Differentiator
• Ideal Differentiator Circuit:

= Rf

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• The differentiator can be constructed from the
basic inverting amplifier by interchanging
resistance Rf and C1.
• The expression for the output voltage of
differentiator is given by,

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• Practical Differentiator:

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• Applications of differentiator:
1. In the P-I-D controller.
2. As a high pass filter
3. In the wave shaping circuits to generate
narrow pulses corresponding to any sharp
change in the input signal.

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 Instrumentation Amplifier
• In many industrial and consumer applications the
measurement and control of quantities such as
temperature, pressure, humidity etc. is required.
• A transducer is used to convert these quantities
into a proportional electrical signal first.
• Output of the transducer is then applied to an
amplifier called “instrumentation amplifier.”
• This amplifier amplifies the low level output
signal of the transducer to such a level that it can
drive the indicator or display.
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 Block Diagram of an Instrumentation
Amplifier

Physical
quantity to Pre- Instrumentation Indicator
be
Transducer or display
amplifier amplifier
measured

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• fig. shows the block diagram of instrumentation
amplifier.
• The transducer is generally connected in a
bridge circuit. Its output is amplified using a low
noise pre-amplifier and through shielded cables
it is applied to an instrumentation amplifier.
• Output of the instrumentation amplifier is the
amplified version of its input.

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• Practical Instrumentation Amplifier used for
temperature control:

R3

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• The three OP-AMP Instrumentation Amplifier:
VO1

VO2

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• The output voltage of three OP-AMP
instrumentation amplifier is given by,
VO = AV x (V1 – V2)
where AV = Overall voltage gain of the circuit
= [1 + (2 R1 / Rgain)] x [R3 / R2]

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 Comparators
• Op-AMP used in open loop mode of
operation, operates as a comparator.
• A comparator will produce either a high
output voltage equal to + Vsat or a low output
voltage equal to – Vsat only, hence it can not
be used as an amplifier.
• There are two types of comparators:
1. Non inverting comparator
2. Inverting comparator
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 Non Inverting Comparator
• In non-inverting comparator, ac signal is
connected to non inverting terminal while
positive dc reference voltage is applied to the
inverting terminal.
• As the current through resistors R is almost
zero, the voltage drop across them will be
equal to zero. Hence V1 = Vin and V2 = Vref.
Hence Vd = V1 – V2 = Vin - Vref

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 V1

V2

Vin

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• The operation of this circuit is given in
following table.
Input voltage Difference Voltage Output voltage VO
Vd
Vin > Vref Vd positive VO = + Vsat
Vin < Vref Vd negative VO = - Vsat

sat

sat

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 Inverting Comparator
• In inverting comparator, ac input voltage is
applied to inverting terminal while dc
reference voltage Vref is applied to non
inverting terminal.
• Here, differential input voltage Vd is given by,
Vd = V1 – V2 = Vref - Vin

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in

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• The operation of this circuit is given in
following table.
Input voltage Difference Voltage Output voltage VO
Vd
Vin < Vref Vd positive VO = + Vsat
Vin > Vref Vd negative VO = - Vsat

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TIMERS

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 IC 555 Timer
• The timing and counting circuits find their
applications in many of the mechanical and
electronic process control systems.
• one of the most popular timer integrated circuit is
IC 555.
• Features of IC NE 555:
1. Supply voltage range: 5 to 18 Volt.
2. Current sinking and sourcing capacity : 200 mA
3. High temperature stability.
4. Timing can be adjusted from microseconds to
hours.
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5. Duty cycle of the output is adjustable.
6. Output is compatible with CMOS and TTL.
7. Good timing stability against supply voltage
variations.
8. Low cost.
9. Versatile in operation.

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Functional block diagram of IC NE 555

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Pin Diagram of IC 555

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• Pin configuration of Timer IC NE 555:
1. Ground: It is connected to ground terminal of the dc
voltage source used to supply power to the timer IC.
2. Trigger input: When voltage at this pin goes below
(1/3)VCC, the lower comparator output goes high
which switches the timer output high and it turns off
the discharge transistor T1.
3. Output: This is the output of the timer and load is
connected to this pin. The status of this pin is decided
by the two comparators.
4. Reset: For normal operation of the timer, this pin
should be connected to + VCC. If reset pin is connected
to a low voltage then transistor T2 is turn on which in
turn switches on the discharge transistor T1 to bring
voltage at pin no.7 to zero.
5. Control: The dc voltage at this pin is (2/3)VCC.
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6. Threshold: As soon as voltage at this pin goes above
(2/3)VCC, the output of upper comparator become
high and this will bring output voltage of timer to low
level.
7. Discharge: This pin is the collector of the transistor
T1.as soon as the output of upper comparator goes
high, this will turn on the transistor T1.
8. VCC: A positive regulated power supply is connected to
this pin.
• Resistive voltage divider:
The three resistances of value 5 KΩ each form the
resistive voltage divider. It generates two reference
voltages, (1/3)VCC for lower comparator and (2/3)VCC
for upper comparator.

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 Multivibrators
• Multivibrator is an electronic circuits which
can have no, one or two stable stages of
operation.
• Depending on the number of stable states we
can classify the multivibrators as:
Multivibrators

Astable Monostable Bistable

Multivibrators Multivibrators Multivibrators
(AMV) (MMV) (BMV)
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IC 555 as an Astable Multivibrator
(AMV)

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A. A. Lande, E & TC Dept
• Operation of the circuit:
 When the voltage at trigger pin i.e pin no. 2 is less
than (1/3) VCC, output is high and capacitor starts
charging through R1 and R2. After some time
“Ton”, voltage on C reaches a level of (2/3) VCC.
 As soon as VC = (2/3) VCC, the upper comparator
output will reset the flip flop and output switches
to low state. The internal transistor “T1” is turned
on and the capacitor discharges exponentially
through R2 and T1.
 After some time “Toff ”, voltage on C reaches a
level of (1/3) VCC, the output is switches to a high
state.
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• Applications of astable multivibrator:
1. Square wave oscillator
2. Ramp generator
3. Voltage controlled oscillator
4. In the flasher circuit

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Monostable Multivibrators using timer
IC 555

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Voltage
across C

t1 t2 t3 T

Output
voltage

t1 t2 T

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• Operation of monostable circuit:
1. Interval (0 to t1): In this interval, trigger input is high
to + VCC. Therefore, transistor T1 is on and hence
discharge, threshold and output terminal will be at
low level.
2. Interval (t1 to t2): At instant t = t1 , trigger input is
negative going pulse. As soon as trigger input voltage
goes below (1/3)VCC, lower comparator output
become high and it makes timer output high.
Therefore transistor T1 turns off and capacitor starts
charging. Output voltage remains high during interval
t1 to t2.
3. Interval (t2 to t3): At instant t2, capacitor charges to
(2/3)VCC. Hence upper comparator output goes high
and timer output comes low level i.e zero. Therefore,
transistor T1 will turn on and capacitor starts
discharging.
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• Applications of monostable multivibrator:
1. Frequency divider
2. Timer
3. Missing pulse detector
4. Pulse width modulator

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Bistable multivibrator using IC 555

RA

RB

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Set VCC
pulse
0 t
VCC
Reset
pulse 0
t

output

0 t

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 Comparison of astable, monostable
and bistable multivibrator
Sr. Astable multivibrator Monostable Bistable multivibrator
No. Multivibrator
1. There are no stable states There is only one stable There are two stable staes
of output state of the output of the output.
2. Trigger input is not Trigger pulse is required Trigger input is required
necessary for changing the for changing the state of for changing the state of
state of the output. output. output.
3. Used as rectangular, Used as timer. Used as flip-flop.
squarewave or ramp
generator.
4. Number of quasi-stable Number of quasi-stable No quasi stable state.
state is 2. state is 1.
5. Time for the two quasi Time for the quasi stable No quasi stabel states.
stable states depends on RC state depends on RC time
time constant. The two constant.
quasi stable states can have
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different intervals.
 Applications of IC 555
1. As adomestic timer.
2. As a sequential timer in industrial
application.
3. Ramp generator.
4. Square wave / recangular wave generator.
5. Missing pulse detector.
6. Schmitt trigger.
7. FSK generator.

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OSCILLATORS

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 Introduction
• Feedback is defined as the process in which a
part of output signal is returned back to the
input.
• Types of feedback:
1. Positive feedback 2. Negative feedback
• If the original input signal and feedback
signal are in phase, the feedback is called as
“positive feedback”.
• Positive feedback is used in oscillators.
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 Oscillators
• Oscillators are basically ac signal generators of
desired shape (sine, square, triangular etc.) at
desired frequency.
• The output voltage and frequency of an
oscillator can be variable.
+V

Output voltage VO
control
Oscillator
Output frequency
control

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Block Diagram of an Oscillator
1800 phase shift

Vi
No external ac
input
total phase shift = 00

Vf

1800 phase shift

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• An oscillator basically consists of an amplifier and
phase shifting network. The amplifier receives
the output of the phase shifting network.
• The amplifier then amplifies it, phase shifts it
through 1800 and applies it to the input of the
phase shifting network.
• The phase shifting network shifts the amplifier
output through another 1800 and attenuates it
before applying it back to the amplifier input.
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 Expression for the gain with positive
feedback
• Let “A” be the amplifier gain without feedback
and “β” be the feedback factor. Then the gain
of the amplifier with positive feedback is given
by,
Af = A/ (1 - Aβ)

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 Barkhausen Criteria
• A amplifier will work as an oscillator if and only if
it satisfies as set of conditions called the
“Barkhausen Criterion.”
• Statements of Barkhausen criteria:
The Barkhausen criterion states that:
1. An oscillator will operate frequency for which
the total phase shift introduced, as the signal
proceeds from the input terminals, through the
amplifier and feedback network and back again
to the input is precisely 00 or 3600 or integral
multiple of 3600.
A. A. Lande, E & TC Dept
2. At the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of
the product of open loop gain of the amplifier
A and the feedback factor β is equal to or
greater then unity.
∴ |Aβ| > 1
The product Aβ is called as the “loop gain”.

A. A. Lande, E & TC Dept

 Types of Oscillators
• On the basis of the type of components used,
for the feedback network the oscillators are
classified into following three categories.
1. RC oscillators
2. LC oscillators
3. Crystal oscillator

A. A. Lande, E & TC Dept

 Comparison of RC, LC and Crystal oscillator
Sr. No. RC oscillator LC oscillator Crystal oscillator
1. Frequency of oscillations Frequency of oscillations Frequency of
is dependent of values of is dependent on values of oscillations depends on
R and C. L and C. the dimensions of
crystal.
2. These are used at low These are preferred at These are preferred at
and medium frequencies. high frequencies. high frequencies.
3. Example of RC oscillators: Examples of LC oscillators: Examples of crystal
Phase shift and wein Hartley, Colpitt’s and oscillator: Miller crystal
bridge oscillators clapp oscillators. oscillator and pierce
crystal oscillator.
4. Poor frequency stability. Poor frequency stability Very high frequency
except for the clapp stability.
oscillator
5. Used as low and medium Used in radio, TV as high Crystal clock,
frequency signal frequency sources, synthesizer, special type
generators. frequency synthesizers. receivers are the
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 Applications of oscillators
1. As a local oscillator in radio receivers
2. In TV receiver
3. In signal generators
4. As clock generation for logic circuits
5. AM and FM transmitters
6. In phase lock loops.

A. A. Lande, E & TC Dept