Nervous system

Ms. Loveleen
Nervous system

•Brain
•Spinal cord
•Peripheral Nerves
NERVOUS SYSTEM

• CNS • PNS
(CENTRAL NERVOUS (PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM): SYSTEM):
Brain & Spinal Cord Nerves outside the brain
& spinal cord
PNS

• Sensory-afferent
• Motor- efferent
• Mixed
Functional parts

• Sensory division
• Motor division: involved in activities that are
Voluntary: Somatic nervous system-Movement of voluntary muscles
Involuntary : Autonomic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic
Cells & tissues of Nervous System

NS consists of neurons which conduct nerve

impulses & are supported by unique connective
tissue cells known as neuroglia.
• Neurons
• Nerves
• Neuroglia
 Neurons

• Each neuron consists of a cell body and

its processes, one axon and many
dendrites.
• Neurones are commonly referred to as
nerve cells. Bundles of axons bound
together are called nerves.
• Neurones cannot divide, and for survival
they need a continuous supply of oxygen
and glucose.
• Unlike many other cells, neurones can
synthesise chemical energy (ATP) only
from glucose.
• Neurones generate and transmit electrical impulses called action potentials.
• Some neurones initiate nerve impulses while others act as ‘relay stations’ where
impulses are passed on and sometimes redirected.
• Nerve impulses can be initiated in response to stimuli from:
Outside the body, e.g. touch, light waves,
Inside the body, e.g. a change in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
alters respiration; a thought may result in voluntary movement.
• Transmission of nerve signals is both electrical and chemical.
• The action potential travelling down the nerve axon is an electrical signal, but
because nerves do not come into direct contact with each other, the signal
between a nerve cell and the next cell in the chain is chemical
 Cell bodies
Cell bodies form the grey matter of the nervous system and
are found at the periphery of the brain and in the centre of
the spinal cord.
Groups of cell bodies are called nuclei in the central nervous
system and ganglia in the peripheral nervous system.
An important exception is the basal ganglia (nuclei) situated
within the cerebrum
 Axons and dendrites

• Axons and dendrites are extensions of cell bodies and form

the white matter of the nervous system.
• Axons are found deep in the brain and in groups, called
tracts, at the periphery of the spinal cord.
• They are referred to as nerves or nerve fibres outside the
brain and spinal cord.
 Axons

• Each nerve cell has only one axon, which begins at a tapered area
of the cell body, the axon hillock. They carry impulses away from
the cell body and are usually longer than the dendrites, sometimes
as long as 100 cm.
Myelinated and Non-myelinated neurones

• Myelinated and non-myelinated nerve fibers are the two

types of nerve fibers in the nervous system.
The myelinated nerve fibers contain a myelin sheath,
surrounding the axons of the nerve cells. ... But,
Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes in non-
myelinated nerve fibers do not produce a myelin sheath
 Dendrites

These are the many short processes that receive and carry
incoming impulses towards cell bodies.
They have the same structure as axons but are usually
shorter and branching.
In motor neurones dendrites form part of synapses and in
sensory neurones they form the sensory receptors that
respond to specific stimuli.
 The nerve impulse (action potential)

• An impulse is initiated by stimulation of sensory nerve endings or by the passage

of an impulse from another nerve. Transmission of the impulse, or action
potential, is due to movement of ions across the nerve cell membrane.
• In the resting state the nerve cell membrane is polarised. This means that there
is a different electrical charge on each side of the membrane, which is called
the resting membrane potential. At rest the charge on the outside is positive and
inside it is negative.
• The principal ions involved are: sodium (Na+), the main extracellular cation
potassium (K+), the main intracellular cation.
• In the resting state there is a continual tendency for these ions to diffuse along
their concentration gradients, i.e. K+ outwards and Na+ into cells.
• When stimulated, the permeability of the nerve cell membrane to these ions
changes. Initially Na+ floods into the neurone from the extracellular fluid causing
depolarisation, creating a nerve impulse or action potential. Depolarisation is
very rapid, enabling the conduction of a nerve impulse along the entire length of
a neurone in a few milliseconds (ms). It passes from the point of stimulation in
one direction only, i.e. away from the point of stimulation towards the area of
resting potential.
• Almost immediately following the entry of sodium, K+ floods out of the neurone
and the movement of these ions returns the membrane potential to its resting
state. This is called the refractory period during which restimulation is not
possible. As the neurone returns to its original resting state, the action of the
sodium–potassium pump expels Na+ from the cell in exchange for K+.
• In myelinated neurones, the insulating properties of the myelin
sheath prevent the movement of ions. Therefore electrical
changes across the membrane can only occur at the gaps in the
myelin sheath, i.e. at the nodes of Ranvier. When an impulse
occurs at one node, depolarisation passes along the myelin sheath
to the next node so that the flow of current appears to ‘leap’ from
one node to the next. This is called saltatory conduction.
 The synapse and neurotransmitters

• The point at which the nerve impulse passes from one to another is the
synapse.
• There is no physical contact between these neurones.
• At its free end, the axon of the presynaptic neuron breaks up into
minute branches that terminate in small swellings called synaptic
knobs, or terminal boutons. These are in close proximity to the
dendrites and the cell body of the postsynaptic neuron. The space
between them is the synaptic cleft.
• Synaptic knobs contain spherical synaptic vesicles, which store a
chemical, the neurotransmitter that is released into the synaptic cleft.
• Neurotransmitters are synthesized by nerve cells, actively transported
along the axons and stored in the synaptic vesicles.
• They are released by exocytosis in response to the action potential and
diffuse across the synaptic cleft.
• They act on specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane.
• Their action is short lived, because immediately they have acted upon
the postsynaptic neuron or effector organ, such as a muscle fibre, they
are either inactivated by enzymes or taken back into the synaptic
knob.
• Usually neurotransmitters have an excitatory
effect at the synapse but they are sometimes
inhibitory.
• The neurotransmitters in the brain and spinal
cord include noradrenaline (norepinephrine),
adrenaline (epinephrine), dopamine, histamine,
serotonin, gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) and
acetylcholine.
 Nerves

• A nerve consists of numerous neurones collected into bundles (bundles of

nerve fibres in the central nervous system are known as tracts).
Each bundle has several coverings of protective connective tissue :
• Endoneurium is a delicate tissue, surrounding each individual fibre, which
is continuous with the septa that pass inwards from the perineurium.
• Perineurium is a smooth connective tissue, surrounding each bundle of
fibres.
• Epineurium is the fibrous tissue which surrounds and encloses a number of
bundles of nerve fibres. Most large nerves are covered by epineurium.
• Sensory nerves carry information from the body to the spinal
cord. The impulses may then pass to the brain or to connector
neurones of reflex arcs in the spinal cord.
• Sensory receptors: Specialized endings of sensory neurones
respond to different stimuli (changes) inside and outside the
body.
• Somatic, cutaneous or common senses: These originate in the
skin. They are: pain, touch, heat and cold. Sensory nerve
endings in the skin are fine branching filaments without
myelin sheaths. When stimulated, an impulse is generated and
transmitted by the sensory nerves to the brain where the
sensation is perceived.
• Proprioceptor senses: These originate in muscles and
joints and contribute to the maintenance of balance
and posture.
• Special senses: These are sight, hearing, balance,
smell and taste.
• Autonomic afferent nerves: These originate in internal
organs, glands and tissues, e.g. baroreceptors
involved in the control of blood pressure,
chemoreceptors involved in the control of respiration,
and are associated with reflex regulation of
involuntary activity and visceral pain.
 Motor or efferent nerves

• Motor nerves originate in the brain, spinal cord and autonomic ganglia.
They transmit impulses to the effector organs: muscles and glands.
• There are two types: somatic nerves – involved in voluntary and reflex
skeletal muscle contraction. autonomic nerves (sympathetic and
parasympathetic) – involved in cardiac and smooth muscle contraction and
glandular secretion.
Mixed nerves
In the spinal cord, sensory and motor nerves are arranged in separate
groups, or tracts. Outside the spinal cord, when sensory and motor nerves
are enclosed within the same sheath of connective tissue they are called
mixed nerves.
 Neuroglia

• Glia, also called glial cells or neuroglia, are non-neuronal

cells in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
and the peripheral nervous system. They maintain
homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and
protection for neurons. These are non-excitable glial cells
that greatly outnumber the neurones. Unlike nerve cells,
which cannot divide, glial cells continue to replicate
throughout life.
Central nervous system

• The central nervous system consists of the brain

and the spinal cord.
 The meninges and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

The meninges
• The brain and spinal cord are completely surrounded by three layers
of tissue, the meninges, lying between the skull and the brain, and
between the vertebral foramina and the spinal cord. Named from
outside inwards they are the:
• Dura Mater
• Arachnoid Mater
• Pia Mater
• The dura and arachnoid maters are separated by a potential space,
the subdural space. The arachnoid and pia maters are separated by
the subarachnoid space, containing cerebrospinal fluid.
 Dura mater

• Dura mater is toughest and outermost layer. The cerebral

dura mater consists of dense fibrous tissue.
• The dura mater has two layers called lamellae: The
superficial layer (also called the periosteal layer), which
serves as the skull's inner periosteum, called the
endocranium; and a deep layer called the meningeal layer;
the actual dura mater. When it covers the spinal cord it is
known as the dural sac or thecal sac
• There is only a potential space between the two layers
except where the inner layer sweeps inwards between
the cerebral hemispheres to form the falx cerebri;
between the cerebellar hemispheres to form the falx
cerebelli; and between the cerebrum and cerebellum
to form the tentorium cerebelli.
• Venous blood from the brain drains into venous sinuses
between the two layers of dura mater. The superior
sagittal sinus is formed by the falx cerebri, and the
tentorium cerebelli forms the straight and transverse
sinuses
• Spinal dura mater forms a loose sheath round the spinal cord,
extending from the foramen magnum to the 2nd sacral vertebra.
Thereafter it encloses the filum terminale and fuses with the
periosteum of the coccyx.
• It is an extension of the inner layer of cerebral dura mater and is
separated from the periosteum of the vertebrae and ligaments within
the neural canal by the epidural space, containing blood vessels and
areolar connective tissue.
• Nerves entering and leaving the spinal cord pass through the epidural
space. Dyes, used for diagnostic purposes, and local anaesthetics
or analgesics to relieve pain, may be injected into the epidural space.
 Arachnoid mater

• This is a layer of fibrous tissue that lies between the dura and pia
maters.
• It is separated from the dura mater by the subdural space, and from
the pia mater by the subarachnoid space, containing cerebrospinal
fluid.
• The arachnoid mater passes over the convolutions of the brain and
accompanies the inner layer of dura mater in the formation of the
falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli and falx cerebelli.
• It continues downwards to envelop the spinal cord and ends by
merging with the dura mater at the level of the 2nd sacral vertebra.
 Pia mater

• This is a delicate layer of connective tissue containing many minute

blood vessels.
• It adheres to the brain, completely covering the convolutions and
dipping into each fissure.
• It continues downwards surrounding the spinal cord.
• Beyond the end of the cord it continues as the filum terminale,
pierces the arachnoid tube and goes on, with the dura mater, to
fuse with the periosteum of the coccyx.
Ventricles of the brain and the cerebrospinal
fluid

The brain contains four irregular-shaped cavities, or

ventricles, containing cerebrospinal fluid.
They are:
• Right and left lateral ventricles
• Third ventricle
• Fourth ventricle.
The lateral ventricles

• These cavities lie within the cerebral

hemispheres, one on each side of the median
plane just below the corpus callosum. They are
separated from each other by a thin membrane,
the septum lucidum, and are lined with ciliated
epithelium. They communicate with the third
ventricle by interventricular foramina..
The Third ventricle

• The third ventricle is a cavity situated

below the lateral ventricles between the
two parts of the thalamus. It communicates
with the fourth ventricle by a canal, the
cerebral aqueduct.
The fourth ventricle

• The fourth ventricle is a diamond-shaped cavity situated

below and behind the third ventricle, between the
cerebellum and pons. It is continuous below with the
central canal of the spinal cord and communicates with
the subarachnoid space by foramina in its roof.
Cerebrospinal fluid enters the subarachnoid space
through these openings and through the open distal end
of the central canal of the spinal cord
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

CSF is a clear, slightly alkaline fluid with a specific gravity of

1.005, consisting of:
• water
• mineral salts
• glucose
• plasma proteins: small amounts of albumin and globulin
• a few leukocytes.
CSF is secreted continuously at a rate of about 0.5 ml per
minute, i.e. 720 ml per day.
• The volume remains fairly constant at about 150 ml, as absorption keeps
pace with secretion.
• CSF pressure may be measured using a vertical tube attached to a
lumbar puncture needle inserted into the subarachnoid space above or
below the 4th lumbar vertebra.
• The pressure remains fairly constant at about 10 cm H2O when the
individual is lying on his side and about 30 cm H2O when sitting up.
• If the brain is enlarged by, e.g., hemorrhage or tumor, some
compensation is made by a reduction in the amount of CSF. When the
volume of brain tissue is reduced, such as in degeneration or atrophy, the
volume of CSF is increased.
 Functions of cerebrospinal fluid

• CSF supports and protects the brain and spinal cord by maintaining a
uniform pressure around these vital structures.
• It acts as a cushion or shock absorber between the brain and the skull.
• It keeps the brain and spinal cord moist and there may be exchange of
nutrients and waste products between CSF and nerve cells.
• CSF is thought to be involved in regulation of breathing as it bathes
the surface of the medulla where the central respiratory
chemoreceptors are located
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow

• Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted into each ventricle of the brain by

choroid plexuses. These are vascular areas where there is a
proliferation of blood vessels surrounded by ependymal cells in
the lining of ventricle walls.
• CSF passes back into the blood through tiny diverticula of
arachnoid mater, called arachnoid villi, which project into the
venous sinuses.
• The movement of CSF from the subarachnoid space to venous
sinuses depends upon the difference in pressure on each side of
the walls of the arachnoid villi, which act as one-way valves.
• When CSF pressure is higher than venous pressure, CSF passes
into the blood and when the venous pressure is higher the
arachnoid villi collapse, preventing the passage of blood
constituents into the CSF. There may also be some
reabsorption of CSF by cells in the walls of the ventricles.
• From the roof of the fourth ventricle CSF flows through
foramina into the subarachnoid space and completely
surrounds the brain and spinal cord.
• There is no intrinsic system of CSF circulation but its
movement is aided by pulsating blood vessels, respiration and
changes of posture.
 Brain

• The brain constitutes about one-fiftieth of the body weight

and lies within the cranial cavity.
The parts are:
• Cerebrum
• Diencephalon
• Brain stem
• Cerebellum.
 Blood supply to the brain

• The circulus arteriosus and its contributing arteries play a

vital role in maintaining a constant supply of oxygen and
glucose to the brain.
• The brain receives about 15% of the cardiac output,
approximately 750 ml of blood per minute.
• Autoregulation keeps blood flow to the brain constant by
adjusting the diameter of the arterioles across a wide range
of arterial blood pressure (about 65–140 mmHg).
 Cerebrum
• This is the largest part of the brain and it occupies the anterior and
middle cranial fossae.
• It is divided by a deep cleft, the longitudinal cerebral fissure, into right
and left cerebral hemispheres, each containing one of the lateral
ventricles.
• Deep within the brain the hemispheres are connected by a mass of
white matter (nerve fibres) called the corpus callosum.
• The falx cerebri is formed by the dura mater. It separates the two
hemispheres and penetrates to the depth of the corpus callosum. The
superficial (peripheral) part of the cerebrum is composed of nerve cell
bodies or grey matter, forming the cerebral cortex, and the deeper
layers consist of nerve fibres or white matter.
• The cerebral cortex shows many infoldings or furrows of
varying depth. The exposed areas of the folds are the gyri
(convolutions) and these are separated by sulci (fissures).
These convolutions greatly increase the surface area of the
cerebrum. For descriptive purposes each hemisphere of the
cerebrum is divided into lobes which take the names of the
bones of the cranium under which they lie: frontal parietal
temporal occipital. The boundaries of the lobes are marked
by deep sulci. These are the central, lateral and parieto-
occipital sulci