Metalanguage

Prepared by
Leah E. Gustilo, PhD.
[email protected]
Presentation Outline
• The need for studying grammar
• Conflicting approaches in teaching grammar
• Defining grammar grammatically, structurally, and functionally
• Parts of Speech
• Sentential terminology
• Moods of the Verb in English
• Problematic usage and selected Rules in Grammar
• Categories of Verbs
• Tenses
 Why is there a need to study
the English Grammar?
SIX REASONS ACCORDING TO CRYSTAL (2003)
1. Accepting the Challenge
People are constantly curious about the world in which they
live, and wish to understand it and (as with mountains)
master it. Grammar is no different from any other domains of
knowledge in this respect.
 2. Being Human
But more than mountains, language is involved with almost
everything we do as human beings. We cannot live without
language. To understand the linguistic dimension of our existence
would be no mean achievement. And grammar is the fundamental
organizing principle of language.

3. Exploring Our Creative Ability

Our grammatical ability is extraordinary. It is probably the most
creative ability we have. There is no limit to what we can say or
write, yet all of this potential is controlled by a finite number of
rules. How is this done?
 4. Solving Problems
Nonetheless, our language can let us down. We encounter ambiguity, and
unintelligible speech or writing. To deal with these problems, we need to put
grammar under the microscope, and work out what went wrong. This is especially
critical when children are learning to emulate the standards used by educated adult
members of their community.

5. Learning Other Languages

Learning about English grammar provides a basis for learning other languages.
Much of the apparatus we need to English grammar turns out to be of general
usefulness. Other languages have clauses, tenses, and adjectives too. And the
differences they display will be all the clearer if we have first grasped what is unique to
our mother tongue.
 6. Increasing Our Awareness

After studying grammar, we should be more alert to

the strength, flexibility, and variety of our language,
and thus be in a better position to use it and to
evaluate others' use of it. Whether our own usage in
fact improves, as a result, is less predictable. Our
awareness must improve, but turning that
awareness into better practice--by speaking and
writing more effectively--requires an additional
set of skills. Even after a course on car mechanics,
we can still drive carelessly.
Source: Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language. UK.
Cambridge University Press
Conflict in Grammar Teaching

Function
Form
Communicative
structure
use
Conflict in Grammar Teaching
•Being able to use the language grammatically
and being able to use the language are two
different things; but both are important.

•Help learners to accomplish both: approach

that accounts for both structure and use
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
 Defining grammar suitable for both approaches
Understand how grammar works in three dimensions:
Grammar is not merely a collection of forms but rather involves
the three dimensions of what linguists refer to as
(morpho)syntax, semantics, and pragmatics (Celce-Murcia, 2008)
Form – how it is formed? (Accuracy)
Meaning – What does it mean? (Meaningfulness)
Use – When/Why is it used? (appropriateness)
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
 A pedagogic grammar
• is a description of how to use the grammar of a language
to communicate for people wanting to learn the target
language.
• Pedagogic grammars contain assumptions about how
learners learn, follow certain linguistic theories in their
descriptions, and are written for a specific target
audience.
• Should have an eclectic approach to meet the needs of
the learners
Source: Pedagogic grammar: Retrieved from
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/pedagogic-grammar
 Defining the Parts of Speech
Problem with semantic definition:
Noun– is a name of person, place, or thing.
How about color blue?
Problem with structural definition
Not all nouns have noun-like morphemes and do not
always function as nouns: wilderness—wilderness
park; fly (noun or verb)
Need for functional definition
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
 Defining Parts of Speech: Semantic,
structural, functional
Parts of Grammatical/Notio Structural Functional Kinds/Types
Speech nal/Traditional Definition Definition of
Definition
Nouns Name of a person, Preceded by Subject of Common,
place, or thing articles verbs mass,
proper
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
 Parts of Grammatical/ Structural Functional Kinds/Types of
Speech Notional/Tradi Definition Definition
tional
Definition
Verbs Denotes action Follows a noun Adding a Modal verbs, be
or state of being and is followed verb to a verbs, action
by an noun verbs
adjective, an completes Instransitive,
adverb and the sentence transitive,
other nouns ditransitive
Complex
transitive verbs,
prepositional
Parts of Grammatical/Notion Structural Functional Kinds/Types
Speech al/Traditional Definition Definition of
Definition

Adverbs Modify verbs and Finally, Modify attributive,

contribute meaning medially, verbs and predicative
to the sentence and initially sentences
 Parts of Grammatical/Notional Structural Functional Kinds/
Speech /Traditional Definition Definition Definition Types of

Prepositi Connects words to Precedes closely one

ons other parts of the nouns relates to word,
sentence and the noun two-word
pronouns next to it
 Parts of Grammatical/ Structural Functional Kinds/Types
Speech Notional/Tradi Definition Definition of
tional
Definition
Conjunction Words that between Join elements Subordinating
join words, that are and
clauses, or grammatically coordinating
sentences equal or joins a
subordinate
clause to a
main clause
Pairwork:

•Define Adjectives in a table

grammatically, structurally, and
functionally
 Parts of Grammatical/ Structural Functional Kinds/Types
Speech Notional/Tradi Definition Definition of
tional
Definition
Adjective
The principal sent them to his office immediately.
Part of NOTIONAL/ STRUCTURA FUNCTIONAL
Speech GRAMMATICAL L
DEFINITION

The
Principal
Sent
Them
To
his
office
 Parts of Grammatical Structural Functional Kinds/Types
Speech /Notional/Tr Definition Definition of
aditional
Definition
Adjective Quantifies/Q Between a Modifies or Attributive,
ualifies determiner complements predicative
nouns and a noun, nouns
after BE
Identifiable
structures
(able, ish,
ful)
 Parts of Speech

Major classes/Content words/Open class: nouns,

verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
Minor classes/Function words/Closed class:
auxiliary verbs, preposition, pronouns, determiners,
and conjunctions

Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
 Sentential Terminology
Simple sentence – contains at least one subject and
one verb and can stand alone as an independent
clause.
Compound sentence – consists of two or more clauses
of equal grammatical importance.
Complex sentence – contains a main clause and one
or more subordinate clauses.

Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
 Types of Sentence Structures
Dependent clauses start with
Sentence Description Examples subordinating conjunctions:
Structure
after
Simple contains at least one subject The teacher was although
and one verb and can stand late. as
alone as an independent because
clause. before
even though
if
Compound two independent causes (or Glenda waited for
since
complete sentences) the teacher, but the though
connected to one another teacher was late. unless
with a coordinating until
conjunction ("FAN BOYS) when
Complex made up of an independent Because Glenda whenever
clause and one or went home early, I whereas
more dependent did not see her in wherever
clauses connected to it. class. while
 Mood of the Verb
In grammar, mood is used to refer to a verb
category or form which indicates whether the
verb expresses a fact (the indicative mood), a
command (the imperative mood), a question
(the interrogative mood) or a wish or possibility
(the subjunctive mood).

Source: Mood (2018). https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/moods

 Moods in English Language
Major moods definition examples

INDICATIVE Used for factual statements Dr. Reyes facilitates the

(Declarative) workshop
Or pose questions (interrogative
Does Dr. Reyes facilitate the
workshop

IMPERATIVE Expresses a request or command Facilitate the workshop now.

Would you facilitate the
workshop?

SUBJUNCTIVE expresses a wish, a suggestion, a If I were in your position, I

command, or a condition that is would do the same.
contrary to fact. It is imperative that the meeting
begin at once.
Forming the subjunctive
Non-subjunctive Non-subjunctive Subjunctive
Subjunctive Form
Form Example Example
It is essential
is He is allowed. be
he be allowed.
If I wereordered,
was I was ordered. were
I'd go.
present verbs in
the third I wish that
He cooks. remove the s
person singular he cook.
(i.e., ending s)
Source: What is the subjunctive mood. (n.d.) Retrieved from : http://www.grammar-
monster.com/glossary/subjunctive_mood.htm
 Minor Moods
Tag declarative You've been drinking again, haven't you.
Tag imperative Leave the room, will you!
Pseudo-imperative Move and I'll shoot! Move or I'll shoot!
Alternative questions Does John resemble his father or his mother?
Exclamative What a nice day!
Optative May he rest in peace.
Curse You pig, bag of wind, . . .!

Source: Major and Minor Moods. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/mood-in-grammar-1691405

 Theme RHEME
The first major constituent of the constituent of a sentence that
a clause, indicating the adds most new information. The
rheme is usually, but not always,
subject matter, typically associated with the subject
being the subject but
optionally other constituents.

provides the point of

departure of the message

Source: Oxford Dictionary: Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/theme

Examples of Theme and Rheme

Theme/Topic Rheme
When he was distracted by the
barking dog.

What easy question you ask!

Our dog, Chehe limped into the room
 Voice of the Verb
Active Voice:
The subject
functions as
the theme
and is most
often the
actor or
agent of the
action of the
verb

Source: Towson University Online writing support (2017). Retrieved from: https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/activepass.htm
 Voice of the Verb
Passive Voice:
the thing
acted upon by
the agent has
been made
the theme.

Source: Towson University Online writing support (2017). Retrieved from: https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/activepass.htm
Rules in Subject-Verb
Agreement
Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is
a key rule for understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in
many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-
too-common mistake in the following sentence:
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the
room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends,
not roses lend)

Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 •Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or,
either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.
•Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with
stage decorations.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
Rule 3. The verb in an or,
either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with
the noun or pronoun closest to it.

Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on
that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that
shelf.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one
of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the
festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but
awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more
subjects when they are connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
But note these exceptions:
Exceptions:
Ham and eggs is my favorite breakfast.

When the subject stands for a definable unit, such as money,

measurement, time, organization and food combinations, the verb
is indeed singular:
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb
by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc.
These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore
them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her
shaking.

Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the
subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty
mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the
sentence.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows
the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.

NOTE:
The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal
sentences like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say
"there's" than "there are." Take care never to use there's with a plural
subject.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of
time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the
floor.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 Rule 8. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some,
all—Rule 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the
noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is
plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 NOTE
In recent years, the SAT testing service has considered none to be
strictly singular. However, according to Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary of English Usage: "Clearly none has been both singular
and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular
only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the
19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a
singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are
acceptable beyond serious criticism." When none is clearly
intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 Rule 9. With collective nouns such
as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb
might be singular or plural, depending on the writer's
intent.
Examples:
All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury is here OR are here.
A third of the population was not in
favor OR were not in favor of the bill.
Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 NOTE
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care
to be accurate—and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly.
The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot
these days:
The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Better version: The staff members are deciding how they want to
vote.

Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
 Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a
wish or are contrary to fact:
Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but

should still be used in formal speech and writing.

Source: Subject-Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from:

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
A few vs few + countable nouns

Laila has a few friends from

Manila. (positive)
I have few eggs. These are not
enough for all of us. (negative)
A little vs little + uncountable noun
I have a little milk. I can have this for my
coffee. (positive)
I have little milk. I cannot make more
coffee. (negative)