Arrays, Records and Pointers

Arrays, Records and Pointers

• Data structures are classified as either linear
or nonlinear.
• Normally arrays and linked lists fall into linear
data structures.
• Trees and graphs are treated as nonlinear
structures.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

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Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Linear Arrays
• A linear array is a list of a finite number n of
homogeneous data elements such that:
a. The element of array are referenced respectively by
an index set consisting of n consecutive numbers.
b. The elements of the array are stored respectively in
successive memory location.
• The length of data elements of the array can be
obtained by the following formula:
• Length = UB – LB + 1
• UB is upper bound and LB is the lower bound.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

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Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Representation of Linear Arrays in
memory
• Let LA be a linear array in the memory of the
computer
• LOC(LA[K])= address of the element LA[k] of the
array LA
• Address of first element of LA, denoted by
Base(LA) called base address of LA
• LOC(LA[K])=Base(LA)+w(K-lower bound)
• Where w is the number of words per memory cell
for the array LA.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor, Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout 4
 Algorithm 4.1(Traversing a Linear
Array)
• Here LA is a linear array with lower bound LB and
upper bond UB. This algorithm traverses LA
applying an operation PROCESS to each element
of LA.
• 1. [Initialize counter] Set K := LB
• 2. Repeat steps 3 and 4 while K ≤ UB
• 3. [Visit element] Apply PROCESS to LA[K]
• 4. [Increase counter] Set K := K + 1
• 5. [End of Step 2 loop]

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

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Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Algorithm 4.2(Inserting into a Linear
Array)
• INSERT(LA, N, K, ITEM)
• Here LA is a linear array with N elements and
K is a positive integer such that K ≤ N. This
algorithm inserts an element ITEM into the
Kth position in LA.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

6
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Algorithm 4.2(Inserting into a Linear
Array)
• 1. [Initialize counter] Set J := N
• 2. Repeat steps 3 and 4 while J ≥ K
• [Move Jth element downward]
• 3. Set LA[J+1] := LA[J]
• 4.[Decrease counter] Set J := J – 1
• [End of Step 2 loop]
• 5. [Insert element] Set LA[K] := ITEM
• 6. [Reset N] Set N := N + 1
• 7. Exit

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

7
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Algorithm 4.3(Deleting from a Linear
Array)
• 1. Set ITEM := LA[K]
• 2. Repeat steps for J = K to N - 1
• [Move J + 1st element upward]
• Set LA[J] := LA[J + 1]
• [End of Step 2 loop]
• 3. [Reset the number N of elements in LA]
• Set N := N - 1
• 4. Exit
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
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Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Algorithm 4.3(Deleting from a Linear
Array)
• DELETE(LA, N, K, ITEM)
• Here LA is a linear array with N elements and
K is a positive integer such that K ≤ N. this
algorithm deletes the Kth element from LA.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

9
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Sorting; Bubble Sort
• Let A be a list of n numbers. Sorting A refers to
the operation of rearranging the elements of
A so they are in increasing order, i.e., so that
• A[1] < A[2]<………A[N]

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

10
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 How Bubble sort works?
• Suppose the list of numbers A[1], A[2],…..A[N]
is in memory.
• See page # 74 for detail.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

11
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Algorithm 4.4(Bubble Sort)
• BUBBLE (DATA, N)
• 1. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for K = 1 to N – 1
• 2. Set PTR := 1
• 3. Repeat while PTR ≤ N – K
• (a) if DATA[PTR] > DATA[PTR + 1], then:
• interchange DATA[PTR]and DATA[PTR + 1]
• [End of if structure]
• (b) Set PTR := PTR + 1
• [End of inner loop]
• [End of outer loop]
• 4. Exit
•

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

12
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Complexity of Bubble Sort Algorithm
• 𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑛 − 2 + ⋯…..2 + 1 =
𝑛(𝑛−1)
= O(n2)
2

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

13
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Searching
• Linear Search
• In algorithm 2.4, we used the following while
loop header:
• Repeat while LOC ≤ N And DATA[LOC]≠ITEM
• Alternatively, we can do this as the first step:
• LOC = N + 1
• The purpose of this initial statement is to avoid
repeatedly testing whether or not we have
reached the end of the array DATA.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

14
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Binary Search
• Data is sorted in increasing order.
• Extremely efficient algorithm.
• This algorithm works as follows:
• During each stage of our algorithm, our
search for ITEM is reduced to a segment of
elements of DATA:
• DATA[BEG], DATA[BEG + 1], DATA[BEG + 2]……DATA[END]

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

15
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Binary Search
• Note that the variables BEG and END denote the
beginning and end locations of the segment
under consideration.
• Algorithm compares ITEM with the middle
element DATA[MID] of the segment, where MID
is obtained by:
• MID = INT((BEG + END)/2)
• If DATA[MID] = ITEM, then the search is successful
and we set LOC := MID, otherwise, a new
segment of DATA is obtained as follows:
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
16
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Binary Search
• (a) If ITEM < DATA[MID], then ITEM can appear
only in the left half of the segment:
DATA[BEG], DATA[BEG + 1], DATA[BEG + 2]……DATA[MID - 1]
So we reset END := MID – 1 and begin searching
again.
• (b) If ITEM > DATA[MID], then ITEM can appear
only in the right half of the segment:
DATA[MID+1], DATA[MID + 2], ……DATA[END]
So we reset BEG := MID + 1 and begin searching
again.
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
17
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Binary Search
• If ITEM is not in the DATA, then eventually we
obtain
• END < BEG
• This condition signals that the search is
unsuccessful and in such a case we assign
• LOC := NULL.
• Here NULL is a value that lies outside the set
of indices of DATA. (In most cases, we can
choose NULL = 0)
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
18
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Algorithm 4.6 (Binary Search)
• BINARY (DATA, LB, UB, ITEM, LOC)
• Here DATA is a sorted array with lower bound
LB and upper bound UB, and ITEM is a given
item of information.
• The variables BEG, END and MID denote
respectively the beginning, end and the
middle locations of a segment of elements of
DATA. This algorithm finds the location LOC of
ITEM in DATA or sets LOC = NULL.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

19
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 BINARY (DATA, LB, UB, ITEM, LOC)

• 1. Set BEG = LB, END = UB and

• MID = INT((BEG + END)/2)
• 2. Repeat steps 3 and 4 while BEG ≤ END and
DATA[MID] ≠ ITEM
• 3. if ITEM < DATA[MID], then
• Set END = MID – 1
• else
• Set BEG = MID + 1
• [End of if structure]
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
20
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 BINARY (DATA, LB, UB, ITEM, LOC)

• 4. Set MID = INT ((BEG + END)/2)

• [End of step 2 loop]
• 5. if DATA[MID] = ITEM, then:
• Set LOC = MID
• else
• Set LOC = NULL
• [End of if structure]
• 6. Exit
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
21
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 BINARY (DATA, LB, UB, ITEM, LOC)

• See example 4.9

• See yourself the complexity of the binary
search algorithm.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

22
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Multidimensional Arrays
• The arrays whose elements are accessed by
more than one subscript are termed as
multidimensional arrays.
• Two-Dimensional array
• A two dimensional m × n array A is a collection
of m.n data elements such that each element
is specified by a pair of integers (such as J, K)
called subscripts, with the property that

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

23
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Multidimensional Arrays
• 1 ≤ J ≤ m and 1 ≤ K ≤ m
• The element of A with first subscript j and
second subscript k will be denoted by
• A[J, K]

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

24
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Representation of Two-Dimensional
Arrays in Memory
• Let A be a two-dimensional m × n array.
• Although A is pictured as a rectangular array
of elements with m rows and n columns, the
array will be represented in memory by a
block of m.n sequential memory locations.
• The programming language stores the array A
• either (1) column by column, or what is called
column-major order
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
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Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Representation of Two-Dimensional
Arrays in Memory
• Or (2) row by row, in row major order. See fig
4.10
• For a linear array LA, the computer does not
keep track of the address LOC(LA[K]) of every
element LA[K] of LA, but does keep track of
Base(LA), the address of first element of LA.
The computer uses the formula:
LOC (LA[K]) = Base(LA) + w(K - 1)
to find address of LA[K].

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

26
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Representation of Two-Dimensional
Arrays in Memory
• Here w is the number of words per memory
cell for the array LA, and 1 is the lower bound
of the index set of LA.
• For Column-major order
• LOC(A[J, K]) = Base(A) + w[M(K-1) + (J-1)]
• For Row-major order
• LOC(A[J, K]) = Base(A) + w[N(J-1) + (K-1)]
• See example 4.12
Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,
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Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 Algorithm 4.7 (Matrix Multiplication)
• MATMUL(A, B, C, M, P, N)
• Let A be an M × P matrix array, and let B be a P
× N matrix array. This algorithm stores the
product of A and B in an M × N matrix array C.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

28
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 MATMUL(A, B, C, M, P, N)

• 1. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for I = 1 to M:

• 2. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for J = 1 to N:
• 3. Set C[I, J] = 0
• 4. Repeat for K = 1 to P:
• C[I, J] = C[I, J] + A[I, K] * B[K, J]
• [End of inner loop]
• [End of step 2 middle loop]
• [End of step 1 outer loop]
• 5. Exit

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

29
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout
 SPARSE MATRICES
• Matrices with relatively high proportion of
zero entries are called sparse matrices.

Dr. Vijay Kumar Samyal, Assistant Professor,

30
Dept of CSE, MIMIT, Malout