Review of Learning

Theories For Teachers

Rosario M. Cabreza
Discussant
Topics:
• Educational Objective
• Radical Behaviorism
• Communities of Practice
• Situated Learning
• Conversation Theory
• Competency-Based Theory
• Problem-Based Learning
• Place-Based Education
• Question-Based Learning
• Learning Blends/ Combination Learning
23. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Taxonomy of learning objectives that educators set for students in three
“domains” : Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. Learning at the higher
levels is dependent on achieving lower levels. Designed to motivate educators
to focus on all three domains, creating a more holistic form of education.

Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge remembering of previously learned material; of terminology; specific facts; ways
and means of dealing with specifics (conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and
categories, criteria, methodology); universals and abstractions in a field (principles and
generalizations, theories and structures):
Knowledge is (here) defined as the remembering (recalling) of appropriate, previously
learned information.

o defines; describes; enumerates; identifies; labels; lists; matches; names; reads; records;
reproduces; selects; states; views; writes;.
2. Comprehension: Grasping (understanding) the meaning of informational materials.

o classifies; cites; converts; describes; discusses; estimates; explains; generalizes; gives examples;
illustrates; makes sense out of; paraphrases; restates (in own words); summarizes; traces;
understands.

3. Application: The use of previously learned information in new and concrete situations to solve
problems that have single or best answers.

o acts; administers; applies; articulates; assesses; charts; collects; computes; constructs;

contributes; controls; demonstrates; determines; develops; discovers; establishes; extends;
implements; includes; informs; instructs; operationalizes; participates; predicts; prepares;
preserves; produces; projects; provides; relates; reports; shows; solves; teaches; transfers; uses;
utilizes.

4. Analysis: The breaking down of informational materials into their component parts, examining (and
trying to understand the organizational structure of) such information to develop divergent conclusions by
identifying motives or causes, making inferences, and/or finding evidence to support generalizations.

o analyzes; breaks down; categorizes; compares; contrasts; correlates; diagrams; differentiates;

discriminates; distinguishes; focuses; illustrates; infers; limits; outlines; points out; prioritizes;
recognizes; separates; subdivides.
5. Synthesis: Creatively or divergently applying prior knowledge and skills to produce a new
or original whole.
o adapts; anticipates; collaborates; combines; communicates; compiles; composes;
creates; designs; develops; devises; expresses; facilitates; formulates; generates;
hypothesizes; incorporates; individualizes; initiates; integrates; intervenes; invents;
models; modifies; negotiates; plans; progresses; rearranges; reconstructs;
reinforces; reorganizes; revises; structures; substitutes; validates.
6. Evaluation (On same level as synthesis?): Judging the value of material based on personal
values/opinions, resulting in an end product, with a given purpose, without real right or wrong answers.

o appraises; compares & contrasts; concludes; criticizes; critiques; decides; defends; interprets;
judges; justifies; reframes; supports.

Affective Domain - emphasizing feeling and emotion

Psychomotor Domain - concerned with motor skills

Affective Domain
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected the name of newly introduced people.
attention. Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies,
locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.
Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully
learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.
outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses,
respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites,
reports, selects, tells, writes.
Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value
object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to
acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs
based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues management on matters that one feels strongly about.
to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains,
are often identifiable. follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads,
reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
 Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and
responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior.
Explains the role of systematic planning in solving
problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes
different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and
unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and self.
synthesizing values.
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares,
completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies,
integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates,
synthesizes.
Examples: Shows self-reliance when working
independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork).
Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a
controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis.
predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence.
learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's Values people for what they are, not how they look.
general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional). Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens,
modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises,
serves, solves, verifies.
PSYCHOMOTOR
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land
after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts
Perception (awareness): The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of
activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.
translation.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies,
isolates, relates, selects.
Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process.
Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the
sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations “Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain.
(sometimes called mindsets).
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,
volunteers.
Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. forklift.

Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds

 Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is the intermediate stage in learning a
complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches.
Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a
Complex Overt Response (Expert): The skillful performance of motor acts computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the
that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a piano.
quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a
Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays,
minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation,
fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds
organizes, sketches.
of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a
football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or
produce. adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more
accurate, etc.
Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies
instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged
movement patterns to fit special requirements. and there is no danger in performing the new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine.
or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon
highly developed skills. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates,
designs, initiate, makes, originates.
24. Radical Behaviorism
Learning as a process of forming associations between stimuli in the environment and the
corresponding responses of the individual. Reinforcement strengthens responses and increases
the likelihood of another occurrence when the stimuli is present again.

Radical Behaviorism is the school of thought pioneered by B. F. Skinner that argues that behavior,
rather than mental states, should be the focus of study in psychology.

Skinner’s science of behavior emphasizes the importance of reinforcement and the relationships
between observable stimuli and responses. Behaviors do not depend on thoughts, feelings, or other internal
processes; rather, they are natural events that occur as a result of other events in the environment. Benefits and
consequences of a behavior either increase or decrease the probability of that behavior occurring in the future.
For example, if Sarah bites her nails, she does so not as a conscious or unconscious decision to relieve anxiety
but because the behavior is rewarding in some way.
25. Communities of Practice
Groups of people who share a concern of a passion for something they do and learn how
to do it better as they interact regularly.
The domain: A community of practice is not merely a club of friends or a network of connections between
people. It has an identity defined by a shared domain of interest. Membership therefore implies a
commitment to the domain, and therefore a shared competence that distinguishes members from other
people. (You could belong to the same network as someone and never know it.) The domain is not
necessarily something recognized as “expertise” outside the community. A youth gang may have
developed all sorts of ways of dealing with their domain: surviving on the street and maintaining some kind
of identity they can live with. They value their collective competence and learn from each other, even
though few people outside the group may value or even recognize their expertise.

The community: In pursuing their interest in their domain, members engage in joint activities and
discussions, help each other, and share information. They build relationships that enable them to learn from
each other; they care about their standing with each other. A website in itself is not a community of practice.
Having the same job or the same title does not make for a community of practice unless members interact
and learn together.
 The practice: A community of practice is not merely a community of interest–people who like certain kinds of
movies, for instance. Members of a community of practice are practitioners. They develop a shared repertoire
of resources: experiences, stories, tools, ways of addressing recurring problems—in short a shared practice.
This takes time and sustained interaction. A good conversation with a stranger on an airplane may give you all
sorts of interesting insights, but it does not in itself make for a community of practice.

26. Situated Learning

According to Northern Illinois University, Situated Learning is “an instructional approach developed by
Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the early 1990s, and follows the work of Dewey, Vygotsky, and others
(Clancey, 1995) who claim that students are more inclined to learn by actively participating in the learning
experience. Situated learning essentially is a matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living
(Stein, 1998, para. 2) where learning occurs relative to the teaching environment.”

Other researchers have further developed Situated Learning theory. Brown, Collins & Duguid
emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship. “Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by
enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both
outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of
knowledge.”
27. Conversation Theory
A cybernetic and dialectic framework that offers a scientific theory to explain how interactions lead
to ‘knowing.’

Conversation Theory is based in Pask’s interest in cybernetics. Cybernetics can be defined as the theoretical
study of control processes in electronic, mechanical, and biological systems. It comes from the Greek word meaning
steersman. Some define it as the science of communication and control in the animal and the machine, or the
communication within an observer and between the observer and his environment.

Conversation Theory as developed by Pask originated from this cybernetics framework and attempts to explain
learning in both living organisms and machines. The fundamental idea of the theory was that learning occurs through
conversations about a subject matter which serves to make knowledge explicit.

Conversations can be conducted at a number of different levels:

§ Natural language (general discussion)
§ Object languages (for discussing the subject matter)
§ Metalanguages (for talking about learning/language)
 In order to facilitate learning, Pask argued that subject matter should be represented in the
form of structures which show what is to be learned. These structures exist in a variety of different levels
depending upon the extent of the relationships displayed. The critical method of learning according to
Conversation Theory is "teachback" in which one person teaches another what they have learned.

Pask identified two different types of learning strategies:

§ Serialists – Progress through a structure in a sequential fashion

§ Holists - Look for higher order relations

For students to learn a subject matter, they must learn the relationships among the concepts. For
teachers, the explicit explanation of the subject matter facilitates student understanding (e.g., use
of teachback technique). However, students differ in their preferred manner of learning relationships
(serialists versus holists).
28. Competency-Based Learning
Competency-Based Learning Lacks a Common Definition But Has Four Common Elements
No single, agreed upon definition of competency-based learning was found in state and district policies
or in interviews with administrators; however, researchers identified four common elements of the
reform:
1. Students must demonstrates mastery of all required competencies to earn credit or graduate.
2. Students advance once they have demonstrated mastery, and students receive more time, and
possibly personalized instruction, to demonstrate mastery if needed.
3. Students are assessed using multiple measures to determine mastery, usually requiring that
students apply their knowledge, not just repeat facts.
4. Students can earn credit toward graduation in ways other than seat time, including
apprenticeships, blended learning, dual enrollment, career and technical education programs,
and other learning opportunities outside the traditional classroom setting.
Cont…
Needed Supports for Implementing Competency-Based Learning Include Communication
Strategies, Ongoing Teacher Support, and Access to More Research and Models Students must
demonstrates mastery of all required competencies to earn credit or graduate.
The common resources and supports needed to help districts and schools implement
competency –based learning were identified as the following:
1. A clear communications strategy for all stakeholders to establish understanding,
acceptance, and support of the reform.
2. Ongoing support for teachers, including professional development and time for
collaboration.
3. More research and models to help districts guide their implementation and ongoing efforts.
29. Problem-Based Learning
An approach to learning where the solving or important ‘problems,’ often through inquiry
and Project-Based Learning catalyzes the learning experience.

Problem-based approaches to learning have a long history. They are one of many instructional
approaches that situate learning in a meaningful task, such as case-based instruction and project-based
learning. In the traditions of Kilpatrick (1918, 1921) and Dewey (1938), these approaches argue for the
importance of practical experience in learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) is part of this tradition of
meaningful, experiential learning. In PBL, students learn by solving problems and reflecting on their
experiences (Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980). PBL is well suited to helping students become active learners
because it situates learning in real-world problems and makes students responsible for their learning. It has a
dual emphasis on helping learners develop strategies and construct knowledge(Cognitionand Technology
Group at Vanderbilt [CTGV], 1997; Collins et al., 1989; Hmelo and Ferrari, 1997; Kolodner et al., 1996).
 Cont…
PBL AND OTHER EXPERIENTIAL APPROACHES

PBL is focused, experiential learning organized around the investigation, explanation, and resolution of
meaningful problems (Barrows, 2000; Torp and Sage, 2002). In PBL, students work in small collaborative groups
and learn what they need to know in order to solve a problem. The teacher acts as a facilitator to guide student
learning through the learning cycle depicted in Fig. 1. In this cycle, also known as the PBL tutorial process, the
students are presented with a problem scenario. They formulate and analyze the problem by identifying the
relevant facts from the scenario. This fact-identification step helps students represent the problem. As students
understand the problem better, they generate hypotheses about possible solutions.
Cont…
Cont…
GOALS OF PBL

Problem-based curricula provide students with guided experience in learning through solving complex,
real-world problems. PBL was designed with several important goals (Barrows and Kelson, 1995). It is
designed to help students
1) construct an extensive and flexible knowledge base;
2) develop effective problem-solving skills;
3) develop self-directed, lifelong learning skills;
4) become effective collaborators; and
5) become intrinsically motivated to learn.
 Steps to a Problem-Based Learning Approach

Step 1: Explore the issue. Gather necessary information; learn new concepts, principles, and skills about the
proposed topic.
Step 2: State what is known. Individual students and groups list what they already know about the scenario and list
what areas they are lacking information.
Step 3: Define the issues. Frame the problem in a context of what is already known and information the students
expect to learn.
Step 4: Research the knowledge. Find resources and information that will help create a compelling argument.
Step 5: Investigate solutions. List possible actions and solutions to the problem, formulate and test potential
hypotheses
Step 6: Present and support the chosen solution. Clearly state and support your conclusion with relevant information
and evidence.
Step 7: Review your performance. Often forgotten, this is a crucial step in improving your problem-solving skills.
Students must evaluate their performance and plan improvements for the next problem.
30. Place-Based Education
The emphasis of a meaningful ‘place’ (that is, one meaningful to the learner) in the circumstance of
learning.

Place-based education is the process of using the local community and environment as a starting
point to teach concepts in language arts, mathematics, social studies, science and other subjects across
the curriculum. Emphasizing hands-on, real-world learning experiences, this approach to education
increases academic achievement, helps students develop stronger ties to their community, enhances
students’ appreciation for the natural world, and creates a heightened commitment to serving as active,
contributing citizens. Community vitality and environmental quality are improved through the active
engagement of local citizens, community organizations, and environmental resources in the life of the
school.
31. Question-Based learning
A formal process of inquiry where questions are formed, then improved based on the revelation of
relevant, significant, and accurate data.
32. Learning Blends / Combination Learning
An alternative to traditional academic ‘lessons,’ combination learning blends are combinations of
learning ingredients (e.g., topic, audience, outcome, apps,

The purpose of this guide is to give you a quick overview of the Question Formulation Technique™ (QFT™) and to
provide you with an outline you can use to experience the question formulation process.
 KEY COMPONENTS OF THE QUESTION
FORMULATION TECHNIQUE
The Question Formulation Technique (QFT) is a simple step-by-step, rigorous process
that facilitates the asking of many questions. The process includes the following steps:

1. A Question Focus (QFocus)

2. The Rules for Producing Questions
3. Producing Questions
4. Categorizing Questions
5. Prioritizing Questions
6. Next Steps
7. Reflection
 KEY COMPONENTS OF THE QUESTION FORMULATION TECHNIQUE
1. The Question Focus (QFocus) – A stimulus; a springboard you will use to ask
questions. The QFocus can be a topic, image, phrase or situation that will serve as the
“focus” for generating questions. An effective QFocus should be clear, should provoke
and stimulate new lines of thinking and should not be a question.

2. The Rules for Producing Questions – Each of the four rules supports a behavior
that facilitates effective question formulation.
§ Ask as many questions as you can
§ Do not stop to discuss, judge, or answer any questions
§ Write down every question exactly as it is stated
§ Change any statement into a question

The first step for producing questions is to review the rules and name potential
challenges in following them.

The rules can be difficult to follow at times because you are being asked to work in a way
that might be new or different from what you are accustomed to. The goal here is to
create awareness of the difficulties and help you abide by the rules as you work
producing questions.
www.rightquestion.org Experiencing the Question Formulation Technique (QFT™)
 KEY COMPONENTS OF THE QUESTION FORMULATION TECHNIQUE

3. Produce Questions- You will use the Question Focus (QFocus) to formulate as
many questions as you can. Ask all kinds of questions about the topic, phrase, image,
situation, etc. presented. Please make sure to follow the rules.
This part of the process allows you to think freely without having to worry about the
quality of the questions you are asking.

4. Improving the Questions – Once you have a list of questions, the next step is to
learn about two different types of questions you might have on your list: closed-ended
questions– questions that can be answered with a “yes” or “no” or with one word - and
open-ended questions –questions that require and explanation.

This part of the process develops as follows:

o First, please review your list and identify the closed-ended questions with a “C”
and the open-ended with an “O.”

o Second, think about and name the advantages and disadvantages of asking each
type of question. You will see that there is value in asking both types of questions.

o Third, practice changing questions from one type to another. Changing the
questions will help you learn how to edit your questions to meet your purpose.
 KEY COMPONENTS OF THE QUESTION FORMULATION TECHNIQUE

5. Prioritizing Questions – You might have a lot of questions on your list. It will be
easier to work with the questions if some priorities are established. You will now choose
three questions based on actions you want to take. For example, three most important
questions, three questions you would like to address first, three questions you want to
explore further, etc.

After choosing the priority questions your next step is to name a rationale for
choosing.

As a last step in prioritizing, please pay attention to the numbers of your priority
questions. Are your priority questions at the beginning, in the middle or at the end?

6. Next Steps – Your questions can now be put into action. You might already have
criteria on what to do with the questions. For example, you may use the questions to do
research, develop a project, use the questions as a guide, etc.

7. Reflection – This is the last step in the process. It is now time to reflect on the work
you have done: what you have learned and how you can use it. The reflection helps
internalize the process, its value and how to apply it further.
Thank you for listening.