UNIT #6

EXPLORING GRAPHS
Prof.Riddhi kotak
 Introduction
2
 Graph G = (V, E)
 V = set of vertices
 E = set of edges  (V  V)

A A
B B

C C
D D
E E

Undirected Graph Directed Graph

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Introduction
3

 Types of graphs
 Undirected: edge (u, v) = (v, u);
for all v, (v, v)  E (No self loops.)
 Directed: (u, v) is edge from u to v,
denoted as u  v. Self loops are allowed.
 Weighted: each edge has an associated
weight, given by a weight function w : E 
R.
 Dense: |E|  |V|2.
 Sparse: |E| << |V|2.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Introduction
4

 If (u, v)  E, then vertex v is adjacent to

vertex u.
 Adjacency relationship is:
 Symmetric if G is undirected.
 Not necessarily so if G is directed.
 If G is connected:
 There is a path between every pair of vertices.
 |E|  |V| – 1.
 Furthermore, if |E| = |V| – 1, then G is a tree.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connectivity
5

 An undirected graph is said to be

connected
 if for any pair of nodes of the graph, the
two nodes, are reachable from one another
(i.e. there is a path between them).

 If starting from any vertex we can visit

all other vertices, then the graph is
connected

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connectivity
6
 A graph is biconnected,
 if there are no vertices whose removal will
disconnect the graph.

A A

B B

C C
D D

E E

Biconnected Not Biconnected

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Connectivity
7
 Articulation Points
 A vertex whose removal makes the graph
disconnected is called an articulation
point or cut-vertex.
We can compute
A
articulation points using
B
depth-first search and a
C
special numbering of the
D vertices in the order of their
E visiting.

C is an articulation point
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Connectivity
8
 Bridges
 An edge in a graph is called a bridge, if its
removal disconnects the graph.

Any edge in a graph, that

A
does not lie on a cycle, is a
B bridge.
Obviously, a bridge has at
C
D least one articulation point at
its end, however an
E
articulation point is not
(C,D) and (E,D) are bridges necessarily linked in a bridge.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Connectivity
9

A B

C D

E F

 C is an articulation point, there are no bridges

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connectivity
10

A B

C D

E F

 C is an articulation point, CB is a bridge

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connectivity
11
A

 Biconnected graph:
no articulation points and no bridges

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connectivity
12
 A directed graph is said to be strongly
connected
 if for any pair of nodes there is a path from
each one to the other.

A
B

C
D
E

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connectivity
13
 A directed graph is said to be
unilaterally connected
 if for any pair of nodes at least one of the
nodes is reachable from the other

A
Each strongly connected
B
graph is also unilaterally
C connected.
D
E

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connectivity
14
 A directed graph is said to be weakly
connected
 if the underlying undirected graph is
connected

There is no path between

A
B and D
B
Each unilaterally
C
D connected graph is also
weakly connected
E

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Representation of Graphs
15
 Two standard ways.
A B

C D
Adjacency Matrix Adjacency Lists

A B C D A B C D /
A 0 1 1 1
B A C /
B 1 0 1 0
C 1 1 0 1 C A B D /
D 1 0 1 0
D A C /

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Adjacency Matrix
16
 |V|  |V| matrix A.
 Number vertices from 1 to |V| in some
arbitrary manner.
 A is then given by:A[i, j ]  a  1 if (i, j )  E
ij 
0 otherwise
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 1 2
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
2 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 0
3 1 1 0 1 3 0 0 0 1
3 4 3 4
4 1 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0
 A = AT for undirected graphs.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Adjacency Matrix
17

 Space: (V2).
 Not memory efficient for large graphs.
 Time: to list all vertices adjacent to u:
(V).
 Time: to determine if (u, v)  E: (1).
 Can store weights instead of bits for
weighted graph.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Adjacency Lists
18

 Consists of an array Adj of |V| lists.

 One list per vertex.
 For u  V, Adj[u] consists of all vertices
adjacent to u.

 If weighted, store weights also in

adjacency lists.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Adjacency Lists
19

A B C D /
A B
B A C /

C A B D /
C D
D A C /

A B C D /
A B
B C /

C D /
C D
D /

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Adjacency Lists
20

 Storage Requirement
 For directed graphs:
 Sum of lengths of all adj. lists is
out-degree(v) = |E|
vV

 Total storage: (V+E)

 For undirected graphs:
 Sum of lengths of all adj. lists is
degree(v) = 2|E|
vV

 Total storage: (V+E)

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Traversing/Searching
21
Graphs
 Systematically follow the edges of a graph
to visit the vertices of the graph.
 Used to discover the structure of a graph.
 Standard tree-traversal algorithms.
 Pre-order [root-left-right]
 In-order [left-root-right]
 Post-order [left-right-root]
 Standard graph-searching algorithms.
 Breadth-first Search (BFS).
 Depth-first Search (DFS).

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Breadth-first Search
22

 Input:
 Graph G = (V, E), either directed or
undirected, and source vertex s  V.
 Output:
 d[v] = distance (smallest # of edges, or
shortest path) from s to v, for all v  V. d[v]
=  if v is not reachable from s.
 [v] = u such that (u, v) is last edge on
shortest path s to v. [u is v’s predecessor.]
 Builds breadth-first tree with root s that
contains all reachable vertices.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
23

 Expands the frontier between discovered

and undiscovered vertices uniformly across
the breadth of the frontier.
 A vertex is “discovered” the first time it is
encountered during the search.
 A vertex is “finished” if all vertices adjacent to it
have been discovered.
 Colors the vertices to keep track of progress.
 White – Undiscovered.
 Gray – Discovered but not finished.
 Black – Finished.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Breadth-first Search
24
BFS(G, s)
1. for each vertex u in V[G] – {s} do
2. color[u]  white
3. d[u]  
4. [u]  nil
5. color[s]  gray
6. d[s]  0 white: undiscovered
7. [s]  nil gray: discovered
black: finished
8. Q  
9. enqueue(Q, s) Q: a queue of discovered vertices
color[v]: color of v
d[v]: distance from s to v
[u]: predecessor of v
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
25
10. while Q   do
11. u  dequeue(Q)
12. for each v in Adj[u] do
13. if color[v] = white
14. then color[v]  gray
15. d[v]  d[u] + 1
16. [v]  u white: undiscovered
17. enqueue(Q, v) gray: discovered
black: finished
18. color[u]  black
Q: a queue of discovered vertices
color[v]: color of v
d[v]: distance from s to v
[u]: predecessor of v
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
26

V[G] d[v] [v]

r s t u r
s
t
u
v w x y
v
w
x
y
Q:

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Breadth-first Search
27

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

 0   r  -
s 0 -
t  -
u  -
   
v  -
v w x y w  -
x  -
y  -
Q:s

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Breadth-first Search
28

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

 0   r  -
s 0 -
t  -
u  -
   
v  -
v w x y w  -
x  -
y  -
Q:
u:s
v : r, w
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
29

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0   r 1 s
s 0 -
t  -
u  -
 1  
v  -
v w x y w 1 s
x  -
y  -
Q : r, w
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
30

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0   r 1 s
s 0 -
t  -
u  -
 1  
v  -
v w x y w 1 s
x  -
y  -
Q:w
u:r
v : s, v
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
31

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0   r 1 s
s 0 -
t  -
u  -
2 1  
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x  -
y  -
Q : w, v
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
32

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0   r 1 s
s 0 -
t  -
u  -
2 1  
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x  -
y  -
Q:v
u:w
v : s, t, x
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
33

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2  r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u  -
2 1 2 
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y  -
Q : v, t, x
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
34

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2  r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u  -
2 1 2 
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y  -
Q : t, x
u:v
v:r
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
35

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2  r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u  -
2 1 2 
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y  -
Q : t, x
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
36

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2  r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u  -
2 1 2 
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y  -
Q:x
u:t
v : u, w, x
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
37

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2 3 r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u 3 t
2 1 2 
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y  -
Q : x, u
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
38

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2 3 r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u 3 t
2 1 2 
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y  -
Q:u
u:x
v : t, w, y
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
39

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2 3 r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u 3 t
2 1 2 3
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y 3 x
Q : u, y
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
40

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2 3 r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u 3 t
2 1 2 3
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y 3 x
Q:y
u:u
v : t, y
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
41

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2 3 r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u 3 t
2 1 2 3
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y 3 x
Q:y
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
42

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2 3 r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u 3 t
2 1 2 3
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y 3 x
Q:
u:y
v : u, x
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
43

r s t u V[G] d[v] [v]

1 0 2 3 r 1 s
s 0 -
t 2 w
u 3 t
2 1 2 3
v 2 r
v w x y w 1 s
x 2 w
y 3 x
Q:
u:
v:
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Breadth-first Search
44

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3

v w x y

Breadth First Tree

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Breadth-first Search Time
45
Analysis
BFS(G, s)
1. for each vertex u in V[G] – {s} do
2. color[u]  white
3. d[u]  
4. [u]  nil
5. color[s]  gray O(V)
6. d[s]  0
7. [s]  nil O(V+E)
8. Q  
9. enqueue(Q, s)
10. while Q   do
11. u  dequeue(Q) O(V)
12. for each v in Adj[u] do
13. if color[v] = white (E)
14. then color[v]  gray
15. d[v]  d[u] + 1
16. [v]  u
17. enqueue(Q, v)
18. color[u]  black

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
46

 Explore edges out of the most recently discovered

vertex v.
 When all edges of v have been explored, backtrack
to explore other edges leaving the vertex from
which v was discovered (its predecessor).
 “Search as deep as possible first.”
 Continue until all vertices reachable from the
original source are discovered.
 If any undiscovered vertices remain, then one of
them is chosen as a new source and search is
repeated from that source.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
47

 Input:
 G = (V, E), directed or undirected. No source vertex
given!
 Output:
 2 timestamps on each vertex. Integers between 1
and 2|V|.
 d[v] = discovery time (v turns from white to gray)
 f [v] = finishing time (v turns from gray to black)

 [v] : predecessor of v = u, such that v was discovered

during the scan of u’s adjacency list.
 Uses the same colouring scheme for vertices as
BFS.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Depth-first Search
48
DFS(G)
1. for each vertex u  V[G]
2. do color[u]  white
3. [u]  NIL
4. time  0
5. for each vertex u  V[G] white: undiscovered
6. do if color[u] = white gray: discovered
black: finished
7. then DFS-Visit(u)
color[v]: color of v
[u]: predecessor of v
d[v]: discovery time of v
f[v]: finishing time of v
Uses a global timestamp time.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Depth-first Search
49
DFS-Visit(u)
1. color[u]  GRAY
2. time  time + 1
3. d[u]  time
4. for each v  Adj[u]
5. do if color[v] = WHITE white: undiscovered
6. then [v]  u gray: discovered
black: finished
7. DFS-Visit(v)
8. color[u]  BLACK color[v]: color of v
[u]: predecessor of v
9. f[u]  time  time + 1 d[v]: discovery time of v
f[v]: finishing time of v
Uses a global timestamp time.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Depth-first Search
50

V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

u v w u
v
w
x
x y z
y
z

time:

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
51

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

u -
v -
w -
x -
y -
x y z z -

time: 0

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
52

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/ u - 1
v -
w -
x -
y -
x y z z -

time: 1

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
53

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/ 2/ u - 1
v u 2
w -
x -
y -
x y z z -

time: 2

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
54

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/ 2/ u - 1
v u 2
w -
x -
3/
y v 3
x y z z -

time: 3

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
55

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/ 2/ u - 1
v u 2
w -
x y 4
4/ 3/
y v 3
x y z z -

time: 4

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
56

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/ 2/ u - 1
v u 2
w -
x y 4 5
4/5 3/
y v 3
x y z z -

time: 5

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
57

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/ 2/ u - 1
v u 2
w -
x y 4 5
4/5 3/6
y v 3 6
x y z z -

time: 6

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
58

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/ 2/7 u - 1
v u 2 7
w -
x y 4 5
4/5 3/6
y v 3 6
x y z z -

time: 7

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
59

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/8 2/7 u - 1 8
v u 2 7
w -
x y 4 5
4/5 3/6
y v 3 6
x y z z -

time: 8

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
60

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/8 2/7 9/ u - 1 8
v u 2 7
w - 9
x y 4 5
4/5 3/6
y v 3 6
x y z z -

time: 9

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
61

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/8 2/7 9/ u - 1 8
v u 2 7
w - 9
x y 4 5
4/5 3/6 10/
y v 3 6
x y z z w 10

time: 10

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
62

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/8 2/7 9/ u - 1 8
v u 2 7
w - 9
10/ x y 4 5
4/5 3/6
11 y v 3 6
x y z z w 10 11

time: 11

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
63

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/8 2/7
9/ u - 1 8
12
v u 2 7
w - 9 12
10/ x y 4 5
4/5 3/6
11 y v 3 6
x y z z w 10 11

time: 12

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search
64

u v w V[G] [v] d[v] f[v]

1/8 2/7
9/ u - 1 8
12
v u 2 7
w - 9 12
10/ x y 4 5
4/5 3/6
11 y v 3 6
x y z z w 10 11

Depth-first Forest

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Depth-first Search Time
65
Analysis
DFS(G) DFS-Visit(u)
1. for each vertex u  V[G] 1. color[u]  GRAY
2. do color[u]  white 2. time  time + 1 (E)
3. [u]  NIL (v) 3. d[u]  time
4. time  0 4. for each v  Adj[u]
5. for each vertex u  V[G] 5. do if color[v] = WHITE
6. do if color[u] = white 6. then [v]  u
7. then DFS-Visit(u) 7. DFS-Visit(v)
8. color[u]  BLACK
9. f[u]  time  time + 1

O(V+E)

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Example
66

r s t u

v w x y

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Classification of Edges in
67
DFS
 Tree edge: in the depth-first forest.
Found by exploring (u, v).
 If not Tree edge then:
 Back edge: (u, v), where u is a
descendant of v in the depth-first tree.
 Forward edge: (u, v), where v is a
descendant of u, but not a tree edge.
 Cross edge: any other edge. Can go
between vertices in same depth-first tree
or in different depth-first trees.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Classification of Edges in
68
DFS
u v w
T 9/
1/8 2/7
12

F B T C T

10/
4/5 3/6
T 11 B
x y z

T: Tree Edge B: Back Edge F: Forward Edge C: Cross Edge

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Classification of Edges in
69
DFS
 If G is undirected
 A DFS produces only tree and back edges

 A Graph is acyclic iff a DFS yields no

back edges
 Thus, can run DFS to find cycles

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
70

 We have a set of tasks and a set of

dependencies (precedence constraints)
of form “task A must be done before
task B”

 Topological sort: An ordering of the

tasks that conforms with the given
dependencies.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Topological Sort
71

 Example:
 Resolving dependencies:
 apt-get uses topological sorting to obtain the
admissible sequence in which a set of
Debian packages can be installed/removed.

 Compilation:
 during compilation to order
modules/libraries

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
72
 Example:
 Scheduling:
 When scheduling task graphs in distributed
systems, usually we first need to sort the
tasks topologically ... and then assign them
to resources.
u w

x v z

y
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Topological Sort
73

 Topological sort more formally:

 Suppose that in a directed graph G = (V, E) vertices V
represent tasks, and each edge (u, v) ∊ E means that
task u must be done before task v.
 What is an ordering of vertices 1, ..., |V| such that for
every edge (u, v), u appears before v in the ordering?
 Such an ordering is called a topological sort of G.
 Note: there can be multiple topological sorts of G.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
74

 Topological sort more formally:

 Is it possible to execute all the tasks in G in
an order that respects all the precedence
requirements given by the graph edges?
 The answer is "yes" if and only if the
directed graph G has no cycle!
(otherwise we have a deadlock)
 Such a G is called a Directed Acyclic Graph, or
just a DAG.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Directed Acyclic Graphs
75

 A directed acyclic graph or DAG is a

directed graph with no directed cycles.
u w
x

x z
y z

 A directed graph G is acyclic iff a DFS of G

yields no back edges.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Topological Sort
76

 Topological sort of a DAG:

 Linear ordering of all vertices in graph G
 such that vertex u comes before vertex v if
edge (u, v)  G.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
77
TOPOLOGICAL-SORT(G):
1.call DFS(G) to compute finishing times f[v] for each
vertex v
2.as each vertex is finished, insert it onto the front of a
linked list
3.return the linked list of vertices

Note that the result is just a list of vertices

in order of decreasing finish times f[]
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Topological Sort
78

b c

d e

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
79

time: 0
b c

d e

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
80

time: 1
b 1/ c

d e

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
81

time: 2
b 1/ c

2/
d e

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
82

time: 3
b 1/ c

2/
d e

3/

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
83

time: 4
b 1/ c

2/
d e

3/4 f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
84

time: 5
b 1/ c

2/5
d e

3/4 d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
85

time: 6
b 1/ c

2/5 6/
d e

3/4 d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
86

time: 7
b 1/ c

2/5 6/7
d e

3/4 e d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
87

time: 8
b 1/8 c

2/5 6/7
d e

3/4 c e d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
88
9/

time: 9
b 1/8 c

2/5 6/7
d e

3/4 c e d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
89
9/

time: 10
b 10/ 1/8 c

2/5 6/7
d e

3/4 c e d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
90
9/

time: 11
10/
b 1/8 c
11

2/5 6/7
d e

3/4 b c e d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
91
9/
12

time: 12
10/
b 1/8 c
11

2/5 6/7
d e

3/4 a b c e d f
f

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
a
92
9/
12
a b c e d f
1 1
8 7 5 4
10/ 2 1
b 1/8 c
11

2/5 6/7
e
The linked list is sorted
d
in decreasing order of
finishing times f[]
3/4

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort
93

 Running time of topological sort: (V+E)

 Why?
 Depth first search takes (V+E) time in the
worst case,
 and inserting into the front of a linked list
takes (1) time

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort - Example
94

b g

a e i

c h

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Topological Sort - Example
95  Topological sort is not unique.
 The following are all topological sort of the graph below:

b
s1 = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i}
g

s2 = {a, c, b, f, e, d, h, g, i}
a e i
s3 = {a, b, d, c, e, g, f, h, i}

c h s4 = {a, c, f, b, e, h, d, g, i}

etc.
f
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Connected components
96

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connected components
97

r s t u

v w x y

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connected components
98

STRONGLY-CONNECTED-COMPONENTs(G)
1.call DFS(G) to compute finishing times f[u] for each

vertex u
2.compute GT

3.call DFS(GT),but in the main loop of DFS, consider the

vertices in order of decreasing f[u] (as computed in line 1)

4.output the vertices of each tree in the depth-first forest

formed in line 3 as a separate strongly connected

component

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connected components
99

r s t u

v w x y

1. call DFS(G) to compute finishing times f[u] for each

vertex u
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Connected components
100
r s t u
13/ 11/ 1/
8/9
14 16 10

12/
3/4 2/7 5/6
15
v w x y

2. compute GT
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Connected components
101
r s t u
13/ 11/ 1/
8/9
14 16 10

12/
3/4 2/7 5/6
15
v w x y

3. call DFS(GT),but in the main loop of DFS, consider the

vertices in order of decreasing f[u] (as computed in line
1)
4. output the vertices of each tree in the depth-first forest
formed in line 3 as a separate strongly connected
component
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Connected components
102
r s t u
13/ 11/ 1/
8/9
14 16 10

12/
3/4 2/7 5/6
15
v w x y

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Connected components
103

r s t u

v w x y

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Graphs and Games:
104
Introduction
 Navigation Graph
 Dependency Graph
 State Graph
 etc…..

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 NIM Game
105

 Nim is a mathematical game of strategy.

 Here two players take turns removing
objects from distinct heaps.
 On each turn, a player must remove at
least one object, and may remove any
number of objects provided they all
come from the same heap.
 The goal of the game is to be the player
to remove the last object.
Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Variation of NIM
106

 Consider following game

 Two players playing with single heap(pile) of
matches
 pile contains at least two matches
 Rules
 First player must remove at least one match and
there must be at least one match remains on
heap. Only for 1st move.
 2nd player must remove at least one and at most
twice the number drawn by 1st player.
 Who picks last match wins.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Graphs and Games
107

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Graphs and Games
108

5, 2, 4,
4 2 2

3, 0, 3,
3 0 2

1,
1

i,j i,j means: i are left and can take up to j.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019
 Graphs and Games
109

 (0,0) is a losing position.

 A winning position has at least one
transition to a losing position.
 (n,n) has a transition to (0,0)
 A losing position has all transition to a
winning position.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

 Other Games
110

 Tic tac toe

 Tower of Hanoi
 etc.
 Harder Games:
 Chess, proofs, life (the real one)
 Can’t build the entire graph.
 Nodes: position in the game
 Edges: legal moves between two positions

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019

111 Thank You.

Prof.Riddhi kotak Thursday, July 25, 2019