The Bulk Power Supply 2. Reliability Criteria: The 2 Components Security Assessment From Operators View Nerc
The Bulk Power Supply 2. Reliability Criteria: The 2 Components Security Assessment From Operators View Nerc
• The part of the network which connects the power plants, the major
substations, and the main EHV/HV lines.
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2. RELIABILITY
Power Systems are built and operated with the following goal:
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Reliability has two components
Security is the ability of the electric
systems to withstand sudden disturbances
such as electric short circuits or Focus of
unanticipated loss of system elements. our course
Overload Angle/
Voltage
Security Frequency
Security
security
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Static security Dynamic security
Another View of “Security”
You must note the person’s background who uses the term “Security” in
order to understand the meaning being implied. 6
3. REQUIREMENTS OF A RELIABLE ELECTRIC POWER SERVICE
• Steady-state and transient voltages and frequency must be held
within close tolerances
• Steady-state flows must be within circuit limits
• Synchronous generators must be kept running in parallel with
adequate capacity to meet the load demand
• Maintain the “integrity” of the bulk power network (avoid cascading
outages)
NERC, North American Electric Reliability Corporation: Mission is to
ensure reliability of the bulk power system in North America. They
develop/enforce reliability standards; assess reliability annually via
10-year and seasonal forecasts; monitor the bulk power system;
evaluate users, owners, and operators for preparedness; and
educate, train, and certify industry personnel. NERC is a self-
regulated organization, subject to oversight by the U.S. Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission & governmental authorities in
Canada. It is composed of 9 regional reliability councils &
encompasses virtually all power systems in US & Canada. NERC’s
activities play an essential role in preventing contingencies and 7
mitigating their consequences.
Interconnections
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4. System Dynamic Performance
ONE ASPECT OF SYSTEM SECURITY IS THE ABILITY OF THE SYSTEM TO “STAY TOGETHER.”
THE KEY IS THAT THE GENERATORS CONTINUE TO OPERATE “IN SYNCHRONISM,” OR
NOT TO “LOSE SYNCHRONISM” OR NOT TO “GO OUT OF STEP.” THIS IS THE PROBLEM OF
“POWER SYSTEM STABILITY”
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Importance of Power System Stability
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Definitions
• Power System: A network of one or more electrical
generating units, loads, and/or power transmission lines,
including the associated equipment electrically or
mechanically connected to the network.
• Operating Quantities of a Power System: Physical
quantities, measured or calculated, that can be used to
describe the operating conditions of a power system.
Operating quantities include real, reactive, and apparent
powers, & rms phasors of alternating voltages & currents.
• Steady-State Operating Condition of a Power System: An
operating condition of a power system in which all the
operating quantities that characterize it can be
considered to be constant for the purpose of analysis.
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Definitions
• Synchronous Operation:
– Synchronous Operation of a Machine: A machine is
in synchronous operation with a network or another
machine(s) to which it is connected if its average
electrical speed (product of its rotor angular velocity
and the number of pole pairs) equals the angular
frequency of the ac network or the electrical speed of
the other machine(s).
– Synchronous Operation of a Power System: A power
system is in synchronous operation if all its
connected synchronous machines are in synchronous
operation with the ac network and with each other.
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Definitions
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Definitions
• Disturbance in a Power System: A disturbance in a power system is a
sudden change or a sequence of changes in one or more parameters
of the system, or in one or more of the operating quantities.
– Small Disturbance In a Power System: A small disturbance is a disturbance
for which the equations that describe the dynamics of the power system
may be linearized for the purpose of accurate analysis.
– Large Disturbance In a Power System: A large disturbance is a disturbance
for which the equations that describe the dynamics of the power system
cannot be linearized for the purpose of accurate analysis.
• Steady-State Stability of a Power System: A power system is steady-
state stable for a particular steady-state operating condition if,
following any small disturbance, it reaches a steady-state operating
condition which is identical or close to the pre-disturbance operating
condition. This is also known as Small Disturbance Stability of a
Power System. It should NOT be called “dynamic stability.”
• Transient Stability of a Power System: A power system is transiently
stable for a particular steady-state operating condition and for a
particular disturbance if, following that disturbance, it reaches an15
acceptable steady-state operating condition.
Definitions
• Power system stability: Power system stability is the ability of an
electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to
regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that
practically the entire system remains intact.
• …Stability of a power system… refers to the continuance of intact
operation following a disturbance. It depends on the operating
condition and the nature of the physical disturbance.
• An equilibrium set of a power system is stable if, when the initial
state is in the given starting set, the system motion converges to the
equilibrium set, and operating constraints are satisfied for all
relevant variables along the entire trajectory.
– IEEE Terms and definitions, 2004.
• If the oscillatory response of a power system during the transient
period following a disturbance is damped and the system settles in a
finite time to a new steady operating condition, we say the system is
stable. If the system is not stable, it is considered unstable. 16
– Anderson & Fouad, pg. 5.
Differences between reliability, security, and stability
• Reliability is the overall objective in power system design and operation.
To be reliable, the power system must be secure most of the time. To
be secure, the system must be stable but must also be secure against
other contingencies that would not be classified as stability problems
e.g., damage to equipment such as an explosive failure of a cable, fall of
transmission towers due to ice loading or sabotage. As well, a system
may be stable following a contingency, yet insecure due to post-fault
system conditions resulting in equipment overloads or voltage violations
• System security may be further distinguished from stability in terms of
the resulting consequences. For example, two systems may both be
stable with equal stability margins, but one may be relatively more
secure because the consequences of instability are less severe.
• Security and stability are time-varying attributes which can be judged by
studying the performance of the power system under a particular set of
conditions. Reliability, on the other hand, is a function of the time-
average performance of the power system; it can only be judged by
consideration of the system’s behavior over an appreciable period of
time. 17
- IEEE Paper on Terms and Definitions, 2004
IEEE paper on terms and definitions, 2004.
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The Disturbance-Performance Table is the heart of reliability criteria
Disturbance
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5. HOW ARE RELIABILITY CRITERIA USED?
B) In System Operation
– Establish most economic operating conditions under “normal”
conditions
– Operate the system such that if an unscheduled event occurs,
it does not result in violation of reliability criteria.
– Establish “Safe Operating Limits” for all situations
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The most salient feature of reliability criteria is a philosophy
captured by the following statement taken from the WSCC
criteria for transmission system planning, which describes its
disturbance-performance table:
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Power system operational “states” & actions
Normal (secure)
Other actions
(e.g. switching)
Off-economic
dispatch
Alert,
Restorative
Not secure
Extreme emergency.
Separation, cascading Emergency
delivery point Controlled load
interruption, curtailment
load shedding
Some comments about the previous slide:
• The use of criteria ensures (and the diagram illustrates that), for all
credible contingencies, the system will, at worst transit from the
normal state to the alert state, rather than to a more severe state
such as the emergency state or the in extremis state.
• If a system is operated according to criteria, the system can
transition from normal state to emergency or in extremis state
only for a non-credible (extreme) contingency.
• When the alert state is entered following a contingency, operators
can take actions to return the system to the normal state, but such
actions should not include load shedding.
• Load shedding should only be performed under emergencies.
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Extreme Contingency Assessment (category D)
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6. Types of Stability Studies
A. Steady-state instability
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B. Transient instability
• Use of non-linear system analysis tools to study the system
response to (large) disturbances.
– Traditional method is to use time-domain simulation to “track”
the evolution of system states & parameters during the transient
– Simulation input: (a) pre-disturbance system conditions (the
power flow solution), (b) the dynamic models. (c) the switching
sequence.
– Simulation results: short-term (2-20 seconds) trajectory of all
system parameters and final (post-disturbance) conditions.
– Any change in input WILL change the results, the question that
one needs to answer based on judgment is “how much?”
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Transient instability….
Switching sequences
• The simplest switching sequence is “no-disturbance.”
Why would we ever want to do that?
• The next simplest is:
– 0 cycles: remove circuit 10-29
– 10 seconds: end simulation
• The next simplest, and most common, is:
– 0 cycles: apply fault at bus 2339
– 4 cycles: clear fault
– 4 cycles: remove circuit 2339-2337
– 10 seconds: end simulation
• The most complicated (ever?) is the WECC islanding
scheme – 44 steps.
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Transient instability….
• “First-swing” or “early-swing” (1-5 secs) is a standard problem
for which analysis is performed where a large disturbance
(fault) is applied to see if the system remains in synchronism
during first one or two swings. But often, large disturbances also
create damping problems (oscillatory instability) which require
10-20 seconds of simulation time.
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• Typical purpose of such studies
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7. Stability Implications of Changing Conditions
• The nature of the problems, and the required answers required may change
– Enhance modeling (e.g., wind!)
– Mid-term and long-term analysis: need extended models for this (boiler, tap
changers, thermostatic loads, induction motors)
– Large disturbance voltage instability
– New types of answers are required (e.g., if a new transaction is requested
the stability implications, consequences, and the amount of additional flow
which can reliably be transacted will need to be known in a relatively short
interval of time)
– Very fast computational capability is needed
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