ME4447/6405

ME 4447/6405
Microprocessor Control of Manufacturing Systems
and
Introduction to Mechatronics

Sensors
Optical Encoder: Ryder Winck
Laser Interferometer: Aaron Scott
LVDT: Alexandre Lenoble

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Presentation Outline
• Optical Encoders
• Introduction
• Optical Encoder Components
• Types of Optical Encoders
• Encoder Discs and Digital Codes
• Encoder Reliability and Errors
• Applications
• Laser Interferometer
• What is a Laser Interferometer
• Types of Laser Interferometer
• How Do they Work
• Resolutions and Sampling Rate
• Applications
• Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT)
• What is a LVDT
• Types of LVDTs
• How Do they Work
• Resolutions and Sampling Rate
• Applications

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
What is an Encoder?
• Any transducer that changes a signal into a
coded (digital signal)
• Optical Encoders
– Use light & photosensors to produce digital code
(ie. Lab 3 encoder).
– Most popular type of encoder.
• Can be linear or rotary.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Types of Optical Encoders

• 2 types of Optical Encoders:
– 1. Incremental (Lab 3 encoder)
• Measure displacement relative to a reference point.
– 2. Absolute
• Measure absolute position.
• Advantages – A missed reading does not affect the next
reading. Only needs power on when taking a reading.
• Disadvantages – More expensive/complex.
Cost/complexity proportional to resolution/accuracy.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Fundamental Components
• Light source(s)
– LEDs or IR LEDs provide light source.
– Light is collimated using a lens to make the beams
parallel.
• Photosensor(s)
– Either Photodiode or Phototransistor.
• Opaque disk (Code Disk)
– One or more “tracks” with slits to allow light to
pass through.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Optical Encoder Components

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Other Components
• Stationary “masking” disk
– Identical track(s) to Code Disk
– Eliminates error due to the diameter of the light beam being
greater than the code disk window length.
• Signal amplifiers and pulse shape circuitry.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Quadrature

• Two tracks (A & B) at

90 degrees offset.
• Provide direction
information.
• Provides up to 4 times
resolution.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Encoder Disks
Incremental Disk Absolute Disks

Binary Gray Code

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Absolute Disk Codes
• Example: 3 bit binary code
Angle Binary Decimal
Bit 0
0-45 000 0
Bit 1 45-90 001 1
Bit 2 90-135 010 2
135-180 011 3
Bit 0 180-225 100 4
225-270 101 5
Bit 1
270-315 110 6
315-360 111 7
Bit 2

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Problem with Binary Code

Angle Binary Decimal

• One angle shift results 0-45 000 0

in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1

• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

– 001 (start at 1) 135-180 011 3
– 000 (turn off bit 0)
180-225 100 4
– 010 (turn on bit 1)
225-270 101 5

270-315 110 6

315-360 111 7

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Problem with Binary Code

Angle Binary Decimal

• One degree shift results 0-45 000 0

in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1

• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

– 001 (start at 1) 135-180 011 3
– 000 (turn off bit 0)
180-225 100 4
– 010 (turn on bit 1)
225-270 101 5
• It looks like we went
270-315 110 6
from 1 => 0 => 2
315-360 111 7

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Gray Code
• One bit change per angle change.
Angle Binary Decimal

Bit 0 0-45 000 0

Bit 1 45-90 001 1

Bit 2 90-135 011 2

135-180 010 3
Bit 0
180-225 110 4

Bit 1 225-270 111 5

270-315 101 6
Bit 2
315-360 100 7

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Converting from Gray Code to Binary Code

1. Copy MSB.
2. If MSB is 1, write 1s until next 1 is met.
If MSB is 0, write 0s until next 1 is met.
3. When 1 is met, logically switch what you are
writing (1=>0 or 0=>1).
4. Continue writing the same logical until next
1 is met.
5. Loop back to step 3.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Example: Convert 0010 to Binary

Code
• Copy MSB: 0_ _ _
• Write 0s until next 1 is met: 00_ _
• Switch to writing 1s: 001_
• Write 1s: 0011

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Example: Convert 1110 to Binary

Code
• Copy MSB: 1_ _ _
• Write 1s until next 1 is met: 1_ _ _
• Switch to writing 0s until next 1 is met: 10_ _
• Switch to writing 1s until next 1 is met: 1011

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Encoder Reliability and Errors

• Resolution
360
– Incremental   where N=# of windows.
N
• Resolution can be increased by reading both rising and
360 360
falling edges (   2 N ) and by using quadrature (   4 N ).

360
– Absolute   n where n=# of tracks.
2

360
   90
4

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Encoder Reliability and Errors

• Encoder errors
1. Quantization Error – Dependent on digital word
size.
2. Assembly Error – Dependent on eccentricity of
rotation (is track center of rotation=center of
rotation of disk)
3. Manufacturing tolerances – Code printing
accuracy, sensor position, and irregularities in
signal generation.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Encoder Reliability and Errors

• Comment on pulse irregularity
– It is a result of noise in signal generation,
variations in light intensity, and imperfect edges.
– It can be mitigated using a Schmidt Trigger, but
this can lead to hysteresis.
– Using 2 adjacent sensor will negate this problem.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

Encoder Reliability and Errors

• More encoder errors
4. Structural Limitations – Disk Deformation,
physical loads on shaft.
5. Coupling Error – Gear backlash, belt slippage,
etc…
6. Ambient Effects – Vibration, temperature, light
noise, humidity, etc…

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Applications

• Any linear/rotary position/velocity sensing

– DC Motor control – robotics/automation
– Mechanical computer mouse
– Digital readouts for measurement gauges
– Tachometers – planes, trains and automobiles

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
References
• http://hades.mech.northwestern.edu/wiki/index.php/Image:Maxon-small2.jpg
• http://www.designworldonline.com/Uploads/Leadership/Encoder_Montage1.jpg
• http://www.gpi-encoders.com/06_Technical_Articles.htm
• http://books.google.com/books?id=CjB2ygeR95cC&pg=PA630&lpg=PA630&dq=
optical+encoder+mechatronics&source=bl&ots=uPB9nyu0AP&sig=PJYTMIG1dJ
6UOPzj6uNhvYx1xSE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA
639,M1
• http://books.google.com/books?id=gUbQ9_weg88C&pg=PA97&lpg=PA97&dq=o
ptical+encoders&source=web&ots=X2AbRCs5bL&sig=d-
otsCBPIq7KGQodesPx3QJ_qos&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=re
sult#PPA98,M1
• http://books.google.com/books?id=uG7aqgal65YC&pg=RA1-PA163&lpg=RA1-
PA163&dq=optical+encoders&source=web&ots=6-NhfhYb-F&sig=uf-
VtBwSPRNUaCfujxu0gFb-
xqY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PRA1-PA163,M1
• http://mechatronics.mech.northwestern.edu/design_ref/sensors/encoders.html
• http://books.google.com/books?id=9e4Omibz3L4C&pg=PA395&lpg=PA395&dq=
optical+encoders&source=web&ots=5bTXzKDiWG&sig=cGa9IdHuxw3Zq49SyV
CJbzjGQnc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA410,M1

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Laser Interferometers
• What is a Laser Interferometer?
• Types of Laser Interferometers
• How Do they Work?
• Resolutions and Sampling Rate
• Applications

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

What is a Laser Interferometer?

• Interferometry = “interference” + “measurement”
• Basic application: hi-res measurement of distances
• Basic principle: superposition of light waves

Constructive interference

Destructive interference

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

What is a Laser Interferometer?

• The Michelson Interferometer
– Difference in path length results
in phase difference
– Phase difference causes
interference
– Interference determined by
analysis of fringe patterns

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

What is a Laser Interferometer?

• Brief historical background
– First American Nobel Prize in Sciences 1907
– Optical precision instruments
– Invented the interferometer
– Most accurate measurement of c in his time
– Disproved existence of ether with famous
Michelson-Morley experiment Albert Michelson

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

What is a Laser Interferometer?

Why “lasers” ?

• High coherence
• Collimated
• Predictable
– Frequency known

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Types of Laser Interferometers

• Homodyne detection (standard interferometry)
– DC output signal from photodiode related to intensity of
light from interference
– Both beams have same frequency
• Heterodyne detection
– One beam is frequency modulated prior to detection
– AC output signal of interference at the beat frequency (see
board)
– Phase determined by signal analysis

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Types of Laser Interferometers

• Advantages of Heterodyne Detection
– AC signal frequency can be greatly reduced
• AC frequency = fbeat = fmod – fsignal
– Detection at low frequency reduces effect of high
frequency noise
– Insensitive to ambient light and signal intensity

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

How Do They Work?

• Homodyne – already discussed (Michelson interferometer)
• Heterodyne
– Dual frequency,
polarized
laser source
– Polarizing
beam splitter

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Resolutions and Sampling Rate

• Representative values
• Resolution
– 10 nm digital resolution
– sub-angstrom analog resolution
achieved by “external interpolation”
• Angstrom, Å = 1  10-10 m
• Sampling Rate
– 20 MHz

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Applications
• Michelson used his interferometer to
measure the rotation rate of the Earth
– Perimeter of his ring was 1.9 km

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Applications
• 3 axis ring laser gyro
– Many winds of optic fibers achieve 1 km path
– Sensitive enough to measure
Earth’s rotation despite small
size

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Applications
• Distance measurement
– Profilometer to measure nanoscale surface features
– Nanopatterning Lithography
– Precision machining calibration
– High-precision linear feedback encoder

• Velocity measurement
– Doppler shift along measurement path changes beat
frequency

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Applications
• Other measurements made possible by re-
arrangements of the light paths. We can
measure
– angle
– straightness
– flatness
– parallelism

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Applications
• LIGO Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory
– Gravity waves, predicted by Gen. Relativity, could be
detected by sensing changes in length in perpendicular
directions
– Light bounces 75 times before returning to be combined
– Each arm 4 km

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

Applications
• LISA Laser Interferometer Space Antenna
– NASA/ESA expected 2018-2020
– Similar to LIGO but MUCH larger
– 5 gigameter arm length
– 3 interferometers in 1

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott

References
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometry
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abraham_Michelson
• http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555191/Albert_Michelson.html
• http://www.renishaw.com/UserFiles/acrobat/UKEnglish/GEN-NEW-
0117.pdf
• http://www.ligo-la.caltech.edu/contents/overviewsci.htm
• http://lisa.nasa.gov/
• http://www.maxvalue.co.th/download/Excel.PDF
• DVD: “Albert A. Michelson Laboratory, History and Heritage” Public
Release, NAWCWD, China Lake

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

LVDT

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

What is a LVDT ?

- Linear Variable Displacement Transducer

- Electrical transformer used to measure linear

displacement

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Construction
Secondary #1 Primary Secondary #2

Lead wires

Displacement

Moveable core

- Primary coil and 2 symmetric secondary coils

- Coils are encapsulated in metal/Epoxy
- Ferromagnetic core

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

LVDT Types

- Distinction by :
- Power supply :
- DC
- AC

- Type of armature :
- Unguided
- Captive (guided)
- Spring-extended

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

DC LVDTs
- Easy to install

- Signal conditioning easier (equipment part of

LVDT)

- Can operate from dry cell batteries

- High unit cost

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech
 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

AC LVDTs
- Small size

- Very accurate – Excellent resolution (0.1 µm)

- Can operate with a wide temperature range

(-65° F to +221° F) (30°F to 120°F for
DC)

- Lower unit cost than DC LVDTs

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech
 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Cost per unit

- Unguided armature :
- DC : $485
- AC : $330
- Spring-extended armature
- DC : $1359
- AC : $1156

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Unguided armature

- Simplest mechanical configuration, armature

fits loosely on the bore of the LVDT, being
attached to the moving point by a male thread.

- Armature completely separable from the

transducer body.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Unguided armature : applications

Well-suited for short-range (1 to

50mm), high speed applications (high-
frequency vibration)

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Captive (guided) armature

- Both static and dynamic applications

- Armature restrained and guided by a low-

friction assembly

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Captive (guided) armature

-Advantages compared to unguided armature :

- Better for longer working range (up to 500mm)

- Preferred when misalignment may occur

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Spring-extended armature

- Armature restrained and guided by a low-

friction assembly (as for captive armature)

- Internal spring to continuously push the

armature to its fullest possible extension

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Spring-extended armature

- Best suited for static or slow-moving

applications

- Lower range than captive armature (10 to

70mm)

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

LVDT Function
Primary coil Primary coil

Secondary coil Secondary coil Secondary coil Secondary coil

#1 #2 #1 #2

Input to primary Input to primary

Output from secondary Output from secondary

coils
Secondary coil #1 output (V1)
coils
Secondary coil #1 output (V1)
Secondary coil #2 output (V2) Secondary coil #2 output (V2)
V1 - V2 V1 - V2

George
Demodulated W.
output Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia output
Demodulated Tech
 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Summary

• LVDTs are robust equipment for

measuring displacement

• AC LVDTs require separate signal

conditioning equipment, while DC
LVDTs include signal conditioning
equipment on the device.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Summary

• There are three types of LVDT: unguided

armature, captive armature, and spring-
extended armature.

• AC LVDT’s cost less than DC, but the entire

measurement system must be considered.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Applications
LVDTs find lots of applications in :
- automation machinery
- civil engineering
- power generation
- manufacturing
- metal stamping
- OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer)
- aeronautics
- R&D

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Applications
Examples for OEM :
- Measure displacement of thermostat valve stem for diesel truck
engine monitoring system.

- Blood-testing device measuring the displacement of blood cells

as they contract. Clinical usage, diagnosis of blood disorders.

- Measuring displacement of diamond tip to determine material

hardness.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

Applications
Examples for civil engineering :
- Displacement measurement of imbedded concrete anchors tested
for tensile, compression, bending strength and crack growth in
concrete

- Deformation and creep of concrete wall used for retaining wall

in large gas pipe installation.

- Dynamic measurement of fatigue in large structural components

used in suspension bridges.

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

 Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405

References

• www.dankuchma.com/cee498/presentations/LVDT%20Jason%20Hart.ppt

• Pr. Kurfess’s lecture

• http://www.daytronic.com/products/trans/lvdt/default.htm

• http://www.macrosensors.com

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech