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Knowledge

Knowledge representation is a major issue in artificial intelligence. There are various techniques for representing knowledge, such as logic, relational databases, inheritance hierarchies, and procedural representations. The choice of representation impacts properties like representational adequacy, inferential adequacy, inferential efficiency, and acquisitional efficiency. Common representations include logic, frames, semantic networks, and relational databases.

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Samir Suman
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49 views18 pages

Knowledge

Knowledge representation is a major issue in artificial intelligence. There are various techniques for representing knowledge, such as logic, relational databases, inheritance hierarchies, and procedural representations. The choice of representation impacts properties like representational adequacy, inferential adequacy, inferential efficiency, and acquisitional efficiency. Common representations include logic, frames, semantic networks, and relational databases.

Uploaded by

Samir Suman
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Knowledge Representation

• We’ve discussed generic search techniques.


• Usually we start out with a generic
technique and enhance it to take advantage
of a specific domain.
• The representation of knowledge about the
domain is a major issue.
• Picking a good representation can make a
big difference.
1
Knowledge & Mappings
• Knowledge is a collection of “facts” from
some domain.
• What we need is a representation of facts
that can be manipulated by a program.
– Some symbolic representation is necessary.
– Need to be able to map facts to symbols.
– Need to be able to map symbols to facts?

2
A.I. Problems & K.R.
• Game playing - need rules of the game,
strategy, heuristic function(s).
• Expert Systems - list of rules, methods to
extract new rules.
• Learning - the space of all things learnable
(domain representation), concept
representation.
• Natural Language - symbols, groupings,
semantic mappings, ... 3
Representation Properties
Representational Adequacy - Is it possible to
represent everything of interest ?
Inferential Adequacy - Can new information
be inferred?
Inferential Efficiency - How easy is it to infer
new knowledge?
Acquisitional Efficiency - How hard is it to
gather information (knowledge)?
4
Using Logic ro Represent Facts
• Logic representation is common in AI
programs:

Spot is a dog dog(Spot)

All dogs have tails x:dogs(x)->hastail(x)

Spot has a tail hastail(Spot)


5
Relational Databases
• One way to store declarative facts is with a
relational database:

Suspect Height Weight Handed


OJ 6'2" 220 Right
Al 6'3" 240 Left
Kato 5'10" 170 Right

• Collection of attributes and values.


6
Inheritance
• It is often useful to provide a representation
structure that directly supports inference
mechanisms.
• Property Inheritance is a common inference
mechanism.
• Objects belong to classes.
• Classes have properties that are inherited by
objects that belong to the class.
7
Class Hierarchy
• Classes are arranged in a hierarchy, so that
some classes are members of more general
classes.
• There are a variety of representation strategies
used in AI that are based on inheritance:
slot-and-filler
semantic network
frame system
8
Animal

fly? fly?
NO Mammal Bird YES

fly? fly?
YES Bat Dog NO
Penguin color
BLACK

fly? color
YES UnderDog Sam RED

9
Inheritance Algorithm
• We want to find the value of the attribute a
of a specific object o.
• First look at object o itself.
• Next look for an instance attribute and look
there for the value of a.
• If still no attribute a, check out all isa
attributes.

10
Important Attributes
• The instance and isa attributes support
property inheritance.

• Instance and isa may go by other names, or


may be implicitly represented.

• The isa (class membership) attribute is


transitive.
11
Attributes as objects
• Attributes are themselves objects that have
properties:
– Inverse
– Existence in a hierarchy
– Techniques for reasoning about values
– Single-valued attributes

12
Inferential Knowledge
• Inheritance is not the only inferential
mechanism - logic formulas are often used:
x, y : Batter ( x)  batted ( x, y )  Infield  Fly ( y )  Out ( x)

• We will study logical based inference


procedures soon.
13
Procedural Knowledge
• Some knowledge in contained in the code
we write (for example, a hard coded chess
strategy).
• How does procedural knowledge do with
respect to the representation properties:
– Representational Adequacy
– Inferential Adequacy
– Inferential Efficiency
– Acquisitional Efficiency 14
Granularity of Representation
• High-level facts may require lots of storage
if represented as a collection of low-level
primitives.
• Most knowledge is available in a high-level
form (English).
• It is not always clear what low-level
primitives should be.

15
Representing Sets of Object
• Extensional definition: list all members of a
set.
– Dorks = {Bill, Bob, Dave, Jane}

• Intensional: use rules to define membership


in a set:
– Dork = {x: geek(x) and bald(x) }

16
Search and State Representation
• Each state could be represented as a
collection of facts.
• Keeping many such states in memory may
be impossible.
• Most facts will not change when we move
from one state to another.

17
The Frame Problem
• Determining how to best represent facts that
change from state to state along with those
facts that do not change is the Frame
Problem.
• Sometimes the hard part is determining
which facts change and which do not.

18

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