CALIBRATION AND

POTENTIOMETER
LECTURE 4
 BASIC dc POTENTIOMETER
■ The circuit diagram of a basic dc potentiometer is shown in
Figure

2
Operation
■ First, the switch S is put in the ‘operate’ position and the
galvanometer key K kept open, the battery supplies the working
current through the rheostat and the slide wire.
■ The working current through the slide wire may be varied by
changing the rheostat setting.
■ The method of measuring the unknown voltage, E1, depends upon the
finding a position for the sliding contact such that the galvanometer
shows zero deflection, i.e., indicates null condition, when the
galvanometer key K is closed.

3
■ Zero galvanometer deflection means that the unknown voltage
E1 is equal to the voltage drop E2, across position a–c of the
slide wire.
■ Thus, determination of the values of unknown voltage now
becomes a matter of evaluating the voltage drop E2 along the
portion a–c of the slide wire.

4
■ When the switch S is placed at ‘ calibrate’ position, a standard
or reference cell is connected to the circuit.
■ This reference cell is used to standardize the potentiometer.
■ The slide wire has a uniform cross-section and hence uniform
resistance along its entire length.
■ A calibrated scale in cm and fractions of cm, is placed along
the slide wire so that the sliding Figure.
■ A basic potentiometer circuit contact can be placed accurately
at any desired position along the slide wire.

5
■ Since the resistance of the slide wire is known accurately, the
voltage drop along the slide wire can be controlled by
adjusting the values of working current.
■ The process of adjusting the working current so as to match the
voltage drop across a portion of sliding wire against a standard
reference source is known as ‘standardization’.

6
CROMPTON’S dc POTENTIOMETER
■ The general arrangement of a laboratory-type Crompton’s dc
potentiometer is shown in Figure.

7
■ It consists of a dial switch which has fifteen (or more) steps.
■ Each steep has 10 Ω resistance.
■ So the dial switch has total 150 Ω resistance.
■ The working current of this potentiometer is 10 mA and therefore
each step of dial switch corresponds to 0.1 volt.
■ So the range of the dial switch is 1.5 volt.

8
■ The dial switch is connected in series with a circular slide wire.
■ The circular slide wire has 10 Ω resistance.
■ So the range of that slide wire is 0.1 volt.
■ The slide wire calibrated with 200 scale divisions and since the total
resistance of slide wire corresponds to a voltage drop of 0.1 volt, each
division of the slide wire corresponds to volt.

■ It is quite comfortable to interpolate readings up to 1/5 of a scale

division and therefore with this Crompton’s potentiometer it is
possible to estimate the reading up to 0.0001 volt.

9
Procedure for Measurement of Unknown emf
■ At first, the combination of the dial switch and the slide wire is set to
the standard cell voltage.
– Let the standard cell voltage be 1.0175 volts, then the dial resistor
is put in 1.0 volt and the slide wire at 0.0175 volts setting.
■ The switch ‘S’ is thrown to the calibrate position and the
galvanometer switch ‘K’ is pressed until the rheostat is adjusted for
zero deflection on the galvanometer.
– The 10 kΩ protective resistance is kept in the circuit in the initial
stages so as to protect the galvanometer from overload.

10
■ After the null deflection on the galvanometer is approached the
protective resistance is shorted so as to increase the sensitivity
of the galvanometer.
– Final adjustment is made for the zero deflection with the
help of the rheostat.
– This completes the standardization process of the
potentiometer.

11
■ After completion of the standardization, the switch ‘S’ is thrown to
the operate position thereby connecting the unknown emf into the
potentiometer circuit.
– With the protective resistance in the circuit, the potentiometer is
balanced by means of the main dial and the slide wire adjustment.
■ As soon as the balanced is approached, the protective resistance is
shorted and final adjustments are made to obtain true balance.
■ After the final true balance is obtained, the value of the unknown emf
is read off directly from the setting of the dial switch and the slide
wire.

12
■ The standardization of the potentiometer is checked again by
returning the switch ‘S’ to the calibrate position.
– The dial setting is kept exactly the same as in the original
standardization process.
– If the new reading does not agree with the old one, a
second measurement of unknown emf must be made.
– The standardization again should be made after the
measurement.

13
Measurement of Current by Potentiometer
■ The circuit arrangement for measurement of current by a potentiometer
is shown in Figure.

14
■ The unknown current I, whose value is to be measured, is
passed through a standard resistor R as shown.
■ The standard resistor should be of such a value that voltage
drop across it caused by flow of current to be measured, may
not exceed the range of the potentiometer.
■ Voltage drop across the standard resistor in volts divided by the
value of R in ohms gives the value of unknown current in
amperes.

15
Example:
■ A simple slide wire potentiometer is used for measurement of current
in a circuit. The voltage drop across a standard resistor of 0.1 Ω is
balanced at 75 cm. find the magnitude of the current if the standard
cell emf of 1.45 volt is balanced at 50 cm.

Solution
For the same working current, if 50 cm corresponds to 1.45 volt. Then
75 cm of the slide wire corresponds to

16
So, across the resistance 0.1 ? the voltage drop is 2.175 volt.
Then the value of the current is

17
Measurement of High Voltage by Potentiometer
■ Special arrangements must be made to measure very high
voltage by the potentiometer (say a hundreds of volts) as this
high voltage is beyond the range of normal potentiometer.
■ The volt-ratio box consists of a simple resistance potential
divider with various tapping on the input side.

18
■ The arrangement is shown in Figure.
■ Each input terminal is marked with the maximum voltage which can
be applied and with the corresponding multiplying factor for the
potential scale.

19
■ High emf to be measured is applied the suitable input terminal of
volt-ratio box and leads to the potentiometer are taken from two
tapping points intended for this purpose.
■ The potential difference across these two points is measured by the
potentiometer.
■ If the voltage measured by the potentiometer is v and k be the
multiplying factor of the volt-ratio box, then the high voltage to be
measured is V = kv volt.

20
Measurement of Resistance by Potentiometer
■ The connection diagram for measuring unknown resistance with the
help of potentiometer is shown in Figure

21
■ The unknown resistance R, is connected in series with the
known standard resistor S.
■ The rheostat connected in the circuit controls the current
flowing through the circuit.
■ An ammeter is also connected in the circuit to indicate whether
the value of the working current is within the limit of the
potentiometer or not.

22
■ When the two–pole double throw switch is put in position 1, the
unknown resistance is connected to the potentiometer.
■ Let the reading of the potentiometer in that position is VR. Then

• The value of R can be calculated

accurately since the value of the standard
resistor S is known.
• This method of measurement of
resistance is used for low value of the
resistor.
23
Measurement of Power by Potentiometer
■ In measurement of power by potentiometer the measurements are
made one across the standard resistor S connected in series with the
load and another across the volt-ratio box output terminals.
■ The arrangement is shown in Figure.

24
■ The load current which is exactly equal to the current through the
standard resistor S, as it is connected in series with the load, is
calculated from the voltage drop across the standard resistor divided
by the value of the standard resistor S.
■ Load current

where VS = voltage drop across standard resistor S as measured by

the potentiometer.

25
■ Voltage drop across the load is found by the output terminal of the
volt-ratio box.
■ If VR is the voltage drop across the output terminal of the volt-ratio
box and VL is the voltage drop across load then,

VL = k × VR
where k is the multiplying factor of the volt–ratio box.

Then the power consumed

26
 Calibration of Voltmeter, Ammeter &
Wattmeter using Potentiometer
■ The calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of the result by
comparing it with the standard value.
■ In other words, calibration checks the correctness of the instrument by
comparing it with the reference standard.

27
 Calibration of Voltmeter

■ The circuit for the calibration of the voltmeter is shown in the figure
below.

28
■ The circuit requires two rheostats, one for controlling the
voltage and another for adjustment.
■ The voltage-ratio box is used to step-down the voltage to a
suitable value.
■ The accurate value of the voltmeter is determined by
measuring the value of the voltage to the maximum possible
range of the potentiometer.
■ The potentiometer measures the maximum possible value of
voltages.
29
Calibration of Ammeter
• The figure below shows the circuit for the calibration of
the ammeter.

30
■ The standard resistance is connected in series with the ammeter which
is to be calibrated.
■ The potentiometer is used for measuring the voltage across the
standard resistor.
■ The below mention formula determines the current through the
standard resistance

31
 where,
Vs – voltage across the standard resistor as indicated by the
potentiometer and
S – resistance of standard resistor

■ This method of calibration of the ammeter is very accurate

because in this method the value of standard resistance and the
voltage across the potentiometer is exactly known by the
instrument

32
Calibrating of Wattmeter

• The figure below shows the circuit used for calibrating the
Wattmeter.

33
■ Wattmeter calibration is a combination of ammeter and voltmeter
calibration methods.
■ Figure shows a wattmeter with its current coil connected to one dc
power supply and its voltage coil connected to another supply.
■ A current limiting resistor and the standard ammeter are connected in
series with current coil, and standard voltmeter measures the voltage
applied to the voltage coil.
■ Once the precise voltage and current are determined for a given
reading on the wattmeter, the exact power level is determined as
P=VI.
■ To avoid damaging the instrument, care must be taken to avoid the
specified maximum voltage and current.
34
35
■ The standard resistance is connected in series with the Wattmeter
which is to be calibrated.
■ The low voltage supply is given to the current coil of the Wattmeter.
■ The rheostat is connected in series with the coil for adjusting the
value of current.
■ The potential circuit is supplied from the supply.
■ The volt-ratio box is used to step-down the voltage so that the
potentiometer can easily read the voltage.
■ The actual value of the actual value of voltage and current is
measured by using a double pole double throw switch.
■ The accurate value VI and the value of Wattmeter are compared.

36
Example:
■ An electrodynamic wattmeter being calibrated indicates full scale of
120 W on its 120V, 1 A range. The measured current and voltage are
precisely 1 A and 114 V, respectively. Determine the wattmeter error
and correction figure.

Solution
P = VI = 114 V x 1 A = 112 W
Error = correction figure
=114 W – 120 W = -6 W
In % Error = (-6/120) x 100% = -5%

37
 CLASSIFICATION OF AC
POTENTIOMETERS
■ An ac potentiometer is same as dc potentiometer by principle.
■ Only the main difference between the ac and dc potentiometer is that,
in case of dc potentiometer, only the magnitude of the unknown emf
is compared with the standard cell emf, but in ac potentiometer, the
magnitude as well as phase angle of the unknown voltage is
compared to achieve balance.

38
The following points need to be considered for the satisfactory
operation of the ac potentiometer:
1. To avoid error in reading, the slide wire and the resistance coil of
an ac potentiometer should be non-inductive.
2. The reading is affected by stray or external magnetic field, so in
the time of measurement they must be eliminated or measured
and corresponding correction factor should be introduced.
3. The sources of ac supply should be free from harmonics, because
in presence of harmonics the balance may not be achieved.
4. The ac source should be as sinusoidal as possible.
5. The potentiometer circuit should be supplied from the same
source as the voltage or current being measured.
39
■ There are two general types of ac potentiometers

1. Polar Potentiometer
■ As the name indicates, in these potentiometers, the unknown emf is
measured in polar form, i.e., in terms of its magnitude and relative
phase.
■ The magnitude is indicated by one scale and the phase with respect to
some reference axis is indicated by another scale.

Example: Drysdale polar potentiometer

40
2. Coordinate Potentiometer
■ The unknown emf is measured in Cartesian form.
■ Two components along and perpendicular to some standard axis are
measured and indicated directly by two different scales known as in
phase (V1) and quadrature (V2) scales (Figure).
■ Provision is made in this instrument to read both positive and
negative values of voltages so that all angles up to 360° are covered.

Example: Gall–Tinsley and

Campbell–Larsen type potentiometer
41
 Drysdale Polar Potentiometer
The different components of a Drysdale polar potentiometer is shown in
Figure.

42
■ The slide wire S1 – S2 is supplied from a phase shifting circuit for ac
measurement.
■ The phase shifting circuit is so arranged that the magnitude of the
voltage supplied by it remains constant while its phase can be varied
through 360°.
– Consequently, slide wire current can be maintained constant in
magnitude but varied in phase.

43
■ The phase shifting circuit consists of two stator coils connected in
parallel supplied from the same source; their currents are made to
differ by 90° by using very accurate phase shifting technique.
– The two windings produce rotating flux which induces a
secondary emf in the rotor winding which is of constant
magnitude but the phase of which can be varied by rotating the
rotor in any position.
■ The phase of the rotor emf is read from the circular dial attached in
the potentiometer.

44
■ Before the ac measurement, the potentiometer is first calibrated by
using dc supply for slide wire and standard cell for test terminals T1
and T2.
– The unknown alternating voltage to be measured is applied across
test terminals and the balance is achieved by varying the slide
wire contact and the position of the rotor.
■ The ammeter connected in the slide wire circuit gives the magnitude
of the unknown emf and the circular dial in the rotor circuit gives the
phase angle of it.
45
Gall Coordinate Potentiometer
■ The Gall coordinate potentiometer
consists of two separate
potentiometer circuit in a single
case.
– One of them is called the ‘in-
phase’ potentiometer and the
other one is called the
quadrature potentiometer.
■ The slide-wire circuits of these
two potentiometers are supplied
with two currents having a phase
difference of 90°.
46
■ The value of the unknown voltage is obtained by balancing the
voltages of in-phase and quadrature potentiometers slide wire
simultaneously.
■ If the measured values of in-phase and quadrature potentiometer
slide-wires are V1 and V2 respectively then the magnitude of the
unknown voltage is V = V12 + V22 and the phase angle of the unknown
voltage is given by q = tan .

47
■ W–X and Y–Z are the sliding contacts of the in-phase and
quadrature potentiometer respectively.
■ R and R' are two rheostats to control the two slide-wire
currents.
■ The in-phase potentiometer slide-wire is supplied from a
single-phase supply and the quadrature potentiometer slide-
wire is supplied from a phase-splitting device to create a phase
difference of 90° between the two slide-wire currents.

48
■ T1 and T2 are two step-down transformers having an output voltage of
6 volts.
■ These transformers also isolate the potentiometer from the high-
voltage supply.
■ R and C are the variable resistance and capacitance for phase-splitting
purpose.
■ VG is a vibration galvanometer which is tuned to the supply
frequency and K is the galvanometer key.
■ A is a dynamometer ammeter which is used to display the current in
both the slide-wires so that they can be maintained at a standard value
of 50 mA
49
■ SW1 and SW2 are two sign- changing switches which may be
necessary to reverse the direction of unknown emf applied to
the slide wires.
■ SW3 is a selector switch and it is used to apply the unknown
voltage to the potentiometer.

50
■ Operation Before using the potentiometer for ac
measurements, the current in the in-phase potentiometer slide
wire is first standardized using a standard dc cell of known
value.
■ The vibration galvanometer VG is replaced by a D’Arsonval
galvanometer.
■ Now the in-phase slide wire current is adjusted to the standard
value of 50 mA by varying the rheostat R.
■ This setting is left unchanged for ac calibration; the dc supply
is replaced by ac and the D’Arsonval galvanometer by the
vibration galvanometer.
51
■ The magnitude of the current in the quadrature potentiometer slide
wire must be equal to the in- phase potentiometer slide wire current
and the two currents should be exactly in quadrature.
■ The switch SW3 is placed to test position (as shown in the Figure) so
that the emf induced in the secondary winding of mutual inductance
M is impressed across the in-phase potentiometer wire through the
vibration galvanometer.
52
■ At balance position, the current in the potentiometer wires will
be exactly equal to 50 mA in magnitude and exactly in
quadrature with each other.
■ The polarity difference between the two circuits is corrected by
changing switches SW1 and SW2.

53
■ Lastly, the unknown voltage is applied to the potentiometer by
means of the switch SW3 and balance is obtained on both the
potentiometer slide-wire by adjusting the slide-wire setting.
■ The reading of slide-wire WX gives the in-phase component
(V1) and slide wire YZ gives quadrature component (V2) of the
unknown voltage.

54
Measurement of Self–inductance
■ The circuit diagram for measurement of self inductance of a coil by
ac potentiometer is shown in Figure (a).

55
■ A standard non-inductive resistor is connected in series with the coil
under test and two potential differences V1 and V2 are measured in
magnitude and phase by the potentiometer.
■ The vector diagram is shown in Figure (b).
■ Refer to this figure.
■ Voltage drop across standard resistor RS, V2 = IRS

where, I= current flowing through the circuit, and RS= resistance of

the standard non-inductive resistor

56
■ Voltage drop across inductive coil = V1
■ Phase angle between voltage across and current through the coil = θ
■ Voltage drop due to resistance of coil, IR= V1 cos θ

57