Daniel Stillwell
Fall 2012
What is Psychology?
The study of the mind
Observe behaviors
Ask about feelings and thoughts
Measure the brain
Classical Conditioning
and Ivan Pavlov
Used dogs to study salivation when dogs
were presented with meat powder
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): something
that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR)
Unconditioned Response (UCR): a “natural”
response to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned Stimulus: (CS): a stimulus to
which subject has “learned” response
Conditioned Response (CR): the “learned”
response
An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that
activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food
placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his
early experiments.
The classical conditioning procedure.
Principles of Classical
Conditioning
Acquisition: Training period when a response is
strengthened
Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus
(CS) is used to reinforce further learning
Expectancy: Expectation about how events are
interconnected
Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response
through removal of reinforcement
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned
response following apparent extinction
Principles of Classical
Conditioning (cont.)
Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to
stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a
conditioned stimulus (i.e. Little Albert being afraid
of all little white animals)
Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond
differently to various stimuli
Classical Conditioning
in Humans
Phobia: Fear that persists even when no realistic
danger exists
Systematic Desensitization: Exposing phobic people
gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and
relaxed
Flooding: Exposing phobic people to large amounts
of the feared stimuli at once to decrease phobia
Operant vs. Classical
Conditioning
Classical conditioning: reflexive responses
Operant conditioning: voluntary responses
Definition: Learning based on the consequences of
responding; we associate responses with their
consequences
Law of Effect (Thorndike): The probability of a
response is altered by the effect it has; responses that
lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to
undesired effects are not
Operant Conditioning
(cont.)
Shaping
Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box): Apparatus
designed to study operant conditioning in animals
Response-Contingent Reinforcement: Reinforcement
given after a desired response occurs
The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant
conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.
More Op. Cond. Terms
Positive Reinforcement: When a response is followed by
a reward or other positive event
Negative Reinforcement: When a response is followed
by the removal of an unpleasant event (e.g., the bells in
your car stop when you put the seatbelt on); ends
discomfort
Punishment: Any event that follows a response and
decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking)
Response Cost: Reinforcer or positive thing is removed,
e.g., losing X-Box privileges
Timing of
Reinforcement
Operant reinforcement most effective when given
immediately after a correct response
Shaping: Molding responses gradually in a step-by-
step fashion to a desired pattern – ie. Teaching
pigeons to play ping-pong
Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer: Non-learned and natural;
satisfies biological needs (e.g., food, water, sex)
Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g.,
money, grades, approval, praise)
Token Reinforcer: Tangible secondary
reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)
Social Reinforcer: Provided by other people
(e.g., learned desires for attention and
approval)
Poker chips normally
have little or no value for
chimpanzees, but this
chimp will work hard to
earn them once he learns
that the “Chimp-O-Mat”
will dispense food in
exchange for them.
Schedules of Partial
Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A set number of correct
responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): Varied number of
correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): The first correct
response made, after a certain amount of time has
elapsed, is reinforced
Variable Interval Schedule (VI): Reinforcement is
given for the first correct response made after a
varied amount of time
Schedules of Reinforcement, con’t.
Fixed schedules promote quick and easy learning
Variable schedules are more difficult to extinguish
Modeling or
Observational Learning
Albert Bandura
Model: Someone who serves as an example
Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another
person or by noting consequences of a person’s
actions
Occurs before direct practice is allowed
A nursery school child imitates the aggressive behavior of an adult model he has just seen in a movie.
Successful Modeling
Pay attention to model
Remember what was done
Reproduce modeled behavior
If a model is successful or his/her behavior is
rewarded, behavior more likely to recur
Bandura created modeling theory with
classic Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown)
experiments
Learned Helplessness
Martin Seligman
Dogs, elephants, & people
Learned Optimism
How to Break Bad Habits
Behavioral Contract: Formal agreement
stating behaviors to be changed and
consequences that apply; written contract
State the rewards you will get, privileges you
will forfeit, or punishments you must accept
Type the contract, sign it, and get a person
you trust to sign it
Toilet Train a Cat?
P. 204
Human Memory
Encoding: forming a memory code
Storage: maintaining encoded information in
memory over time
Retrieval: recovering information from memory
stores
Encoding
Attending to the stimulus
Structural Encoding: remember the physical
structure of the syllabus
Phonemic Encoding: remember how the word
sounds
Semantic Encoding: remember the meaning of
verbal input
Elaboration: linking the stimulus to other
information at the time of encoding
Imagery: the creation of visual images
Storage (Information Processing
Theory)
Sensory Memory: a fraction of a second
Short-Term (Working) Memory: +/- 7 “chunks” of
information for up to 20 seconds
Long-Term Memory: an unlimited capacity store
that can hold information over lengthy periods of
time
Short-Term Memory
Rehearsal of information can maintain information
past 20 seconds
Interference by new data can cause forgetfulness
Can increase amount of information by “chunking”:
storing familiar stimuli as a single unit., ie. 636
Long Term Memory
May or may not be permanent
Develop schemas: organized clusters of knowledge
about a particular place or event; people are more
likely to remember things consistent with their
schema
Long-Term Memory
Semantic network:
nodes representing
concepts that are joined
together by related
concepts
Retrieval
Context Cues are helpful
Misinformation Effect: participant’s recall of an
event they witnessed is altered by introducing
misleading postevent information
Memory
Recall: reproducing information without cues
Recognition: selecting previously learned
information from an array of options
Forgetting
Ineffective encoding may appear to be forgetting
Decay over time
Interference: other material may compete
Motivated Forgetting: Freud – you may forget
things that are anxiety-provoking
Repressed Memories
“Amnesia” of childhood sexual abuse
False Memory research (Loftus)
Implicit vs. Explicit
Memory
Implicit Memory: retention without intentional
remembering
Explicit Memory: intentional recollection of
previous memories
