Electron Beam Machining

Instructional Objectives

i. Describe the basic mechanism of material

removal in EBM
ii. Identify major components of EBM equipment
iii. State the working principle of EBM equipment
iv. Draw schematically the EBM equipment
v. Identify the process parameters of EBM
vi. Identify the machining characteristics of EBM
vii. List three applications of EBM
viii. List three limitations of EBM
1. Introduction

 Electron Beam Machining (EBM) and Laser Beam

Machining (LBM) are thermal processes considering the
mechanisms of material removal.
 However electrical energy is used to generate high-
energy electrons in case of Electron Beam Machining
(EBM) and high-energy coherent photons in case of
Laser Beam Machining (LBM).
 Thus these two processes are often classified as
electro-optical-thermal processes.
 EBM as well as LBM are as such thermal beam processes.
 Fig. 1 shows the variation in power density vs. the
characteristic dimensions of different thermal beam
processes.
 Characteristic length is the diameter over which the
beam or flame is active.
 In case of oxyacetylene flame or welding arc, the
characteristic length is in mm to tens of mm and the
power density is typically low.
 Electron Beam may have a characteristic length of tens
of microns to mm depending on degree of focusing of the
beam.
Fig. 1 Variation in energy density with spot diameter of thermal beam
processes
 In case of defocused electron beam, power density
would be as low as 1 Watt/mm2.
 But in case of focused beam the same can be increased
to tens of kW/mm2.
 Electrical discharge typically provides even higher
power density with smaller spot size.
 EBM is typically used with higher power density to
machine materials.
 The mechanism of material removal is primarily by
melting and rapid vaporisation due to intense heating
by the electrons beam.
2. Electron Beam Machining – Process

 Electron beam is generated in an electron beam gun.

 The construction and working principle of the gun is
discussed in the next section.
 The gun provides high velocity electrons over a very
small spot size.
 Electron Beam Machining is required to be carried
out in vacuum. Otherwise the electrons would
interact with the air molecules and they would loose
their energy and cutting ability.
 Thus the workpiece to be machined is located under
the electron beam and is kept under vacuum.
 The high-energy focused electron beam is made to
impinge on the workpiece with a spot size of 10 – 100
μm.
 The kinetic energy of the high velocity electrons is
converted to heat energy as the electrons strike the
work material.
 Due to high power density, instant melting and
vaporisation starts and “melt – vaporisation” front
gradually progresses, as shown in Fig. 9.6.2.
 Finally the molten material, if any at the top of the
front, is expelled from the cutting zone by the high
vapour pressure at the lower part.
Fig. 9.6.2 Mechanism of Material Removal in Electron Beam Machining
 Unlike in Electron Beam Welding, the gun in EBM is
used in pulsed mode.
 Holes can be drilled in thin sheets using a single
pulse.
 For thicker plates, multiple pulses would be
required.
 Electron beam can be manoeuvred using the
electromagnetic deflection coils for drilling holes
of any shape.
3. Electron Beam Machining – Equipment
• Fig. 9.6.3 shows the schematic representation of an
electron beam gun, which is the heart of any electron
beam machining facility.
• The basic functions of any electron beam gun are to
generate free electrons at the cathode, accelerate them
to a sufficiently high velocity and to focus them over a
small spot size.
• Further, the beam needs to be manoeuvred if required by
the gun.
• The cathode, as can be seen in Fig. 9.6.3, is generally
made of tungsten or tantalum.
• Such cathode filaments are heated, often inductively, to a
temperature of around 25000C.
• Such heating leads to thermo-ionic emission of
electrons, which is further enhanced by maintaining
very low vacuum within the chamber of the electron
beam gun.
• Moreover, this cathode cartridge is highly negatively
biased so that the thermo-ionic electrons are strongly
repelled away form the cathode.
• This cathode is often in the form of a cartridge so that it
can be changed very quickly to reduce down time in
case of failure.
Fig. 3 Electron Beam Gun
 Just after the cathode, there is an annular bias grid. A
high negative bias is applied to this grid so that the
electrons generated by this cathode do not diverge and
approach the next element, the annular anode, in the
form of a beam.
 The annular anode now attracts the electron beam which
gradually gets accelerated. As they leave the anode
section, the electrons may achieve a velocity as high as
half the velocity of light.
 The nature of biasing just after the cathode controls the
flow of electrons and the biased grid is used as a switch
to operate the electron beam gun in pulsed mode.
 After the anode, the electron beam passes through a
series of magnetic lenses and apertures. The magnetic
lenses shape the beam and try to reduce the divergence.
 Apertures on the other hand allow only the convergent
electrons to pass and capture the divergent low energy
electrons from the fringes. This way, the aperture and the
magnetic lenses improve the quality of the electron
beam.
 Then the electron beam passes through the final section
of the electromagnetic lens and deflection coil. The lens
focuses the electron beam to a desired spot.
 The deflection coil can manoeuvre the electron beam,
though by small amount, to improve shape of the
machined holes.
 Generally in between the electron beam gun and the
workpiece, which is also under vacuum, there would be a
series of slotted rotating discs.
 Such discs allow the electron beam to pass and machine
materials but helpfully prevent metal fumes and vapour
generated during machining to reach the gun.
 However, it is essential to synchronize the motion of the
rotating disc and pulsing of the electron beam gun.
 Electron beam guns are also provided with illumination
facility and a telescope for alignment of the beam with
the workpiece.
 Workpiece is mounted on a CNC table so that holes of any shape
can be machined using the CNC control and beam deflection in-
built in the gun.
 One of the major requirements of EBM operation of electron beam
gun is maintenance of desired vacuum.
 Level of vacuum within the gun is in the order of 10-4 to 10-6 Torr {1
Torr = 1mm of Hg}.
 Maintenance of suitable vacuum is essential so that electrons do
not loose their energy and a significant life of the cathode cartridge
is obtained.
 Such vacuum is achieved and maintained using a combination of
rotary pump and diffusion pump.
 Diffusion pump, as shown in Fig. 9.6.4 is attached to the diffusion
pump port of the electron beam gun.
 Diffusion pump is essentially an oil heater.
 As the oil is heated the oil vapour rushes upward where
gradually converging structure as shown in Fig. 9.6.4 is
present.
 The nozzles change the direction of motion of the oil
vapour and starts moving downward at a high velocity as
jet.
 Such high velocity jets of oil vapour entrain any air
molecules present within the gun.
 This oil vapour is evacuated by a rotary pump via the
backing line.
 The oil vapour condenses due to presence of cooling
water jacket around the diffusion pump. `
Fig. 9.6.4 Working of a Diffusion Pump
4. Electron Beam Process – Parameters

 The process parameters, which directly affect the

machining characteristics in Electron Beam
Machining, are:
– The accelerating voltage
– The beam current
– Pulse duration
– Energy per pulse
– Power per pulse
– Lens current
– Spot size
– Power density
 As has already been mentioned in EBM the gun is
operated in pulse mode.
 This is achieved by appropriately biasing the biased
grid located just after the cathode.
 Switching pulses are given to the bias grid so as to
achieve pulse duration of as low as 50 μs to as long as
150 μs.
 Beam current is directly related to the number of
electrons emitted by the cathode or available in the
beam.
 Beam current once again can be as low as 200 μamp
(0.2 amp) to 1 amp.
 Increasing the beam current directly increases the energy
per pulse.
 Similarly increase in pulse duration also enhances energy
per pulse.
 High-energy pulses (in excess of 100 J/pulse) can machine
larger holes on thicker plates.
 The energy density and power density are governed by
energy per pulse duration and spot size respectively.
 Spot size, on the other hand is controlled by the degree of
focusing achieved by the electromagnetic lenses.
 For higher energy density and a lower spot size, the
material removal would be faster though the size of the
hole would be smaller.
 The plane of focusing would be on the surface of
the workpiece or just below the surface of the
workpiece.
 This controls the kerf shape or the shape of the
hole as schematically shown in Fig. 9.6.5.
 As has been indicated earlier, the final deflection
coil can manoeuvre the electron beam providing
holes of non-circular cross-section as required.
Fig. 9.6.5 Typical kerf shape of electron beam
drilled hole
5. Electron Beam Process Capability
 EBM can provide holes of diameter in the range of
100 μm to 2 mm with a depth upto 15 mm, i.e., with
a l/d ratio of around 10.
 Fig. 9.6.5 schematically represents a typical hole
drilled by electron beam.
 The hole can be tapered along the depth or barrel
shaped. By focusing the beam below the surface a
reverse taper can also be obtained.
 Typically as shown in Fig. 9.6.5, there would be an
edge rounding at the entry point along with presence
of recast layer.
 Generally burr formation does not occur in EBM.
 A wide range of materials such as steel, stainless
steel, Ti and Ni super-alloys, aluminium as well as
plastics, ceramics, leathers can be machined
successfully using electron beam.
 As the mechanism of material removal is thermal in
nature as for example in electro-discharge machining,
there would be thermal damages associated with
EBM.
 However, the heat-affected zone is rather narrow due
to shorter pulse duration in EBM.
 Typically the heat-affected zone is around 20 to 30
μm.
 Some of the materials like Al and Ti alloys are more
readily machined compared to steel.
 Number of holes drilled per second depends on the hole
diameter, power density and depth of the hole as well as
material type as mentioned earlier.
 Fig. 9.6.6 depicts the variation in drilling speed against
volume of material removed for steel and Aluminium
alloy.
 EBM does not apply any cutting force on the workpieces.
Thus very simple work holding is required.
 This enables machining of fragile and brittle materials by
EBM. Holes can also be drilled at a very shallow angle of
as less as 20 to 300.
Fig. 9.6.6 Variation in drilling speed with volume of
material removal for steels and aluminium
6. Electron Beam Machining – Advantages and
Limitations
Advantages
 EBM provides very high drilling rates when small holes with large
aspect ratio are to be drilled.
 Moreover it can machine almost any material irrespective of their
mechanical properties.
 As it applies no mechanical cutting force, work holding and
fixturing cost is very less.
 Further for the same reason fragile and brittle materials can also
be processed.
 The heat affected zone in EBM is rather less due to shorter pulses.
 EBM can provide holes of any shape by combining beam
deflection using electromagnetic coils and the CNC table with high
accuracy.
However, EBM has its own share of limitations.
 The primary limitations are the high capital cost of
the equipment and necessary regular maintenance
applicable for any equipment using vacuum system.
 Moreover in EBM there is significant amount of non-
productive pump down period for attaining desired
vacuum.
 However this can be reduced to some extent using
vacuum load locks.
 Though heat affected zone is rather low in EBM but
recast layer formation cannot be avoided.