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    1SIENCE IN THE MODERN AGE (Style of Research)

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    Joanne Godezano
    During the modern age, styles of research differed among leading nations. In Britain, a lack of institutional support led to a tradition of amateur research, which limited applied fields like chemistry. Germany established strong university systems that combined research and teaching, pioneering genuine laboratory training and elevating German science. The U.S. relied on European education until the late 19th century when American scientists studied in German universities and later attracted refugees from Nazi Germany. By the late 19th century, Germany dominated industrial chemistry and electrical equipment while Americans competed through inventors and a large market.

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    1SIENCE IN THE MODERN AGE (Style of Research)

    Uploaded by

    Joanne Godezano
    19 views15 pages
    During the modern age, styles of research differed among leading nations. In Britain, a lack of institutional support led to a tradition of amateur research, which limited applied fields like chemistry. Germany established strong university systems that combined research and teaching, pioneering genuine laboratory training and elevating German science. The U.S. relied on European education until the late 19th century when American scientists studied in German universities and later attracted refugees from Nazi Germany. By the late 19th century, Germany dominated industrial chemistry and electrical equipment while Americans competed through inventors and a large market.

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    During the modern age, styles of research differed among leading nations. In Britain, a lack of institutional support led to a tradition of amateur research, which limited applied fields like chemistry. Germany established strong university systems that combined research and teaching, pioneering genuine laboratory training and elevating German science. The U.S. relied on European education until the late 19th century when American scientists studied in German universities and later attracted refugees from Nazi Germany. By the late 19th century, Germany dominated industrial chemistry and electrical equipment while Americans competed through inventors and a large market.

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    19 views15 pages

    1SIENCE IN THE MODERN AGE (Style of Research)

    Uploaded by

    Joanne Godezano
    During the modern age, styles of research differed among leading nations. In Britain, a lack of institutional support led to a tradition of amateur research, which limited applied fields like chemistry. Germany established strong university systems that combined research and teaching, pioneering genuine laboratory training and elevating German science. The U.S. relied on European education until the late 19th century when American scientists studied in German universities and later attracted refugees from Nazi Germany. By the late 19th century, Germany dominated industrial chemistry and electrical equipment while Americans competed through inventors and a large market.

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    Science In The Modern Age

    DIFFERENCES IN
    STYLES OF RESEARCH
    DIFFERENCES IN STYLES OF RESEARCH

    During the modern age, there were still

    striking differences among leading nations

    regarding the circumstances and styles of

    research
    BRITAIN

    In Britain, there was a marked of absence of


    institution providing jobs for the researchers
    and so the tradition of the gentlemen-
    amateur lasted longer than elsewhere.

    This made the British science thin in


    comparison with German, especially in
    applied fields such as chemistry.
    Some British Scientist

     Charles Babbage, was


    an English polymath. He Charles Robert Darwin,
    was a mathematician, was an English naturalist
    philosopher, inventor and and geologist, best known
    mechanical engineer, who for his contributions to
    is best remembered now evolutionary theory.
    for originating the concept
    of a programmable
    computer.

    James Prescott William Thomson, 1st Baron,


    Joule (1818-1889) “Lord Kelvin” was a British
    British physicist, mathematical physicist and
    engineer. He did important
    famous for his research
    work in the mathematical
    into electricity and analysis of electricity and
    thermodynamics. formulation of the first and
    second laws of
    thermodynamics,
    GERMANY

    In Germany, the natural sciences shared in


    the rise in size and prestige of the university
    system.
    Research and teaching were joined.
    Genuine laboratory research training was
    established for the first time.
    With this institutional base and a highly
    developed apparatus of handbooks and
    journals, German science rose in the half
    century from 1830 to a position of leadership
    in most fields.
    Justus von Liebig, was a
    German chemist who made
    major contributions to
    agricultural and biological
    chemistry, and worked on the
    organization of organic
    chemistry.
    German Universities

    University of Giessen
    The University of Giessen is officially called the Justus Liebig University
    Giessen after its most famous faculty member, Justus von Liebig, the
    founder of modern agricultural chemistry and inventor of artificial fertiliser
    FRANCE

    French science declined from what had


    previously been its commanding position
    during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
    periods.
    RUSSIA

    Russia had strong Academy and several


    progressive universities amid generally
    backward conditions and a tradition of
    scientific excellence was available for helping
    the rapid modernization.
    Russian Scientist

    Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was


    a Russian chemist and inventor. He
    formulated the Periodic Law,
    created his own version of the
     Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky periodic table of elements, and
    was a Russian mathematician and used it to correct the properties of
    geometer, known primarily for his some already discovered elements
    work on hyperbolic geometry, and also to predict the properties of
    otherwise known as Lobachevskian eight elements yet to be
    geometry. discovered.
    UNITED STATES

    Through the 19th century, the United States


    remained a cultural colony of Europe except
    to some extent in the field of science
    Its larger universities were oriented toward
    utility, giving little social support to pure
    research
    Around the end of the century, American
    scientists went to Germany in large numbers
    and on returning established strong
    traditions, but the attainment of qualitative
    leadership by the U.S. required the influx of
    refugee scholars from Nazi Germany in 1930s
    ENGLAND

    Early in the century, geology was leading science. It has both


    a philosophical side and practical side.
    Natural history, inherited from the 18th century, served the
    squire and also the freelance explorer and collector, such as
    Thomas Henry Huxley in biology.
    Only in the latter part of the century was there a marked
    trend toward dominance of the specialized professional
    research man, with the abstract experimental scientists as the
    leaders.
    An indication of the gradualness of this change in England
    can be seen in the resistance to the two terms scientist and
    physicist. Although suggested for general use in the 1830s,
    they were condemned by men of science as well as by natural
    philosophers until the beginning of the 20th century.
    The relationship of science to its
    applications had an equally gradual change.

    At the beginning of the period, the most


    successfully applied sciences were those
    traditional ones that were descriptive
    techniques of interest to the state. These were
    either the abstract disciplines of mathematical
    cartography and fortification or the very
    detailed natural-history studies.
    Physics was directly involved in qualitatively new processes, such
    as improved steam-power generation and electrical
    telecommunications.
    Chemistry contributed at first to the rationalization of industrial
    processes and also to effective theories of agriculture and
    nutrition.
    Medicine by applied science came very late, with the germ theory
    of disease; and it is worth remembering that the improvement in
    life to soap and sewers.
    Synthetic dyestuffs were the first example of a laboratory
    discovery turned directly to profit, and this was a German
    achievement and the Germans soon took a commanding lead in
    his industry.
    By the end of the century…

    German dominated all of industrial chemistry as well


    as the heavy electrical equipment industry.
    Americans compete effectively with their combination
    of a large market and independent inventors.
    French had long since lost the early lead they had
    gained with their rational approach to engineering.
    British rested on their early prestige as the workshop
    of the world.
    World War II found the Germans capable of
    synthesizing ammonia for nitrate explosives from the
    air (the Haber process) while the British depended for
    their explosives on nitrates from Chile.

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