TRAFFIC

ENGINEERING
 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS
• The importance of road signs have been
recognized world wide because of the increasing
incidence of road accidents due to the volume of
traffic and bad habits of motor vehicles drivers.

• On June 6, 1973, Presidential Decree No. 207

was issued by then President Ferdinand E.
Marcos.
 THREE EFFICACY PRINCIPLES
• UNIFORMITY includes the prohibition to use
unofficial signs and marking.

• HOMOGENEITY requires that in the same

conditions, the user notices signs or markings with
the same value, same importance and located
according to the same rules.

• SIMPLICITY is to avoid superabundance of signs

that over strain the drivers having the tendency to
neglect the given instructions.
ROAD SIGNS OBJECTIVES
• To lead to a safest road traffic.

• To facilitate this traffic

• To indicate or to remind some particular traffic

rules.

• To inform the drivers how to use the highway.

 CATEGORIES OF SIGNALING
DEVICES
• Road traffic signs.

• Road traffic signals.

• Pavement markings.

• Guide posts and delineators.

 PARAMETERS OF VISIBILITY AND
LEGIBILITY
• DETECTION is the minimum area in contrast with
the environment perceptibility by human eye.

• IDENTIFICATION is an analysis of the form and

color of the road signs to understand the messages
it conveys.

• READING is the fundamental role of road signs

conforming to alpha numerical language or by the
symbol of information transmitted to the driver.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ROAD SIGNS
• VALORIZATION PRINCIPLES
Means to use only the needed and useful signs. Too many road
signs lessen its efficiency.

• CONCENTRATION PRINCIPLES
When it is necessary that some road signs must be seen at the
same time, they should be installed for the driver to see at a glance by
night and day.

• LEGIBILITY PRINCIPLE
Excessive efforts of reading or memory works cannot be
required from the driver. The indications of analogical messages
should be reduced, and if necessary, road signs should be properly
distributed.
 WARNING OR DANGER SIGN
• Used to warn traffic of potentially hazardous
conditions on or adjacent to the roadway.
• It should always be in Triangular shape with one
Vertical Angle and dark blue symbol, two borders
one white and red with reflectorized white
background.
• Use of yellow color for background is strictly
prohibited for permanent signs.
 OBJECTIVES OF WARNING SIGNS
• The objectives of warning sign is to attract drivers
attention in the areas where his watchfulness has
to increase on account of the obstacles or of the
dangerous points linked to highway structure,
conditions of the road, transport infrastructure,
condition of vehicles and local circumstances.

• When it is necessary to point out a potential risk,

an advanced danger warning sign is installed.

• Road signs should not carry commercial

advertisement other than for traffic control only.
WARNING SIGNS
WARNING SIGNS
 INTERSECTION SIGNS
• Article III of the right of way and signals of the Traffic
Code is not clear. Therefore, it is necessary to
define the right of way rules at the junctions and
intersections. The right of way can be reduced to
three possible situations:

– General Rule
– Priority Road
– Non-Priority Road
GENERAL RULE
• When the vehicles approaches an intersection from different
roads, the driver on the left should yield the right of way to the
vehicle on the right except as otherwise hereinafter provided.

PRIORITY ROAD
• Any vehicle running on this type of road has always the right of
way against the vehicle coming from the right r from the left
except otherwise provided.

NON-PRIORITY ROAD
• The driver of any vehicle entering a highway from private road
shall yield the right of way to all vehicles approaching ,entering
or in the intersection.
 LOCATION OF THE
INTERSECTION SIGNS
• On Rural Areas, the normal distance between the intersections
and the warning signs is 150 meters. This distance can be
modified according to site conditions and the free operating
speed. It can reach up to 400 meters on highways with good
visibility and where the speed can be high. There are
exceptional cases where two very near successive
intersections can justify location distance shorter than 100
meters.
• When signs are located more than 200 meters from an
intersection, it should be repeated at a half distance, and the
two signs should be equipped with distance sign.
 PRESCRIPTION SIGN
• It informs the drivers of the traffic laws and
regulations that could be an offense to anyone
who disregard and violate it.
• Prescription sign is installed only with the approval
of Public authority having jurisdiction of the
premises to be removed anytime if the legal
requirements of the signs become inconsistent
with the prevailing conditions.
• Prescription sign is classified into three
categories;
- Prohibitive Signs
- Obligation Signs
- End of Prescription Signs
 PROHIBITED SIGNS

• The prohibitive signs have a white background, red

ring and prohibitive red bar, symbols, and letters.
Numbers are dark blue except the sign R3-1 with
red background and the signs R5-12 with a dark
blue background.
• The NO ENTRY sign has only white border. The
background is red with a horizontal white bas.
PROHIBITED SIGNS
PROHIBITED SIGNS
 OBLIGATION SIGNS

The Obligation Signs are circular in shape. The

background is dark blue. The symbols and border
is white.

If the administration enforces prohibition or an

obligation sign, it has to inform the driver the end
of this restriction to the highway use.
 MEANING OF THE FOLLOWING
OBLIGATORY DIRECTION SIGNS
• R2-1 - Obligation to continue straight ahead
• R2-2 (R) - Obligation to follow the right direction
• R2-2(L) - Obligation to follow the left direction
• R2-3(R) - Obligation to turn the obstacle by its right side
• R2-3 (L) - Obligation to turn the obstacle by its left side
• R2-4 (R)- Obligation to turn right
• R2-4 (L)- Obligation to turn left
• R2-8 (R)- Obligation to go straight ahead or to turn right
• R2-8 (L)- Obligation to go straight ahead or to turn left
• R2-9- Obligation to turn right or left
• R2-10 - Obligation to use the roundabout
OBLIGATORY DIRECTION SIGNS
END OF PRESCRIPTION SIGNS
The end of all prohibition signs is also circular in
shape and represents the same bar sign
obligation symbol.
A red bar from the right top to the left bottom cancels
this obligation.
The R4-2 informs the drivers of the end of all the
previous prescriptions.
The sign should not be setup on the road where the
speed limit is greater or smaller than the ones
prescribed by the general rules.
END OF PROHIBITION SIGNS
 DIRECTION SIGNS
Direction signs are divided into four categories
1. Advance direction sign
2. Intersection direction sign
3. Reassurance of confirmatory sign
4. Entering and Exit of urban area

This four categories are well defined on the

Philippine Road Signs Manual. In Europe, a
different green is used for background of the sign.
It is more intense with an emerald tint.
ADVANCE DIRECTION SIGNS
INTERSECTION DIRECTION SIGNS
CONFIRMATORY SIGNS
 ENTERING AND EXITING URBAN
AREA
The driver should be informed that he is entering the
city of xx and to refrain from being attracted by
anything except to look at the shop signs only to
know where he is.
The sign EB10 is rectangular in shape with white
background, red and white borders and dark blue
letters.
The sign EB20 notifies the driver that he is leaving
the place and that he can resume his speed under
the traffic regulations.
 INFORMATIVE SIGNS

The objectives of this sign is to give the driver

miscellaneous information useful in his driving and
general knowledge.
The signs are square in shape with dark blue
background, white symbols and letters bounded
by white borderline.
Informative signs may include red symbols and bar
notifying the end of prohibitions etc.
 INFORMATIVE SIGNS

Material Requirements
Sign Panels for warning, regulatory and informative
signs are manufactured from aluminum sheeting
of at least 3 mm in thickness.
The Reflective Sheet used for road signs consists
of spherical lens elements embedded in
transparent plastic having smooth, flat surface
with protective pre-coat adhesive.
VARIOUS INFORMATIVE SIGN
 PLACEMENT OF SIGNS

The position of individual sign depends upon its

purpose and circumstances peculiar to its
location.
If possible, location should be standardized.
Positioning provides another set of cues to
motorists.
 TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Traffic signal is defined as all power operated traffic

control devices, except flashers, signs and marking for
directing or warning motorists, cyclists or pedestrians.
Traffic Signals are classified into:

 Pre-Timed Signals – where traffic time intervals are

provided to the various traffic movements.

 Traffic Activated – where time intervals are

controlled as a whole or in part by traffic demands.
Positive Meaning of Each Color

1. The steady Circular Green………Means GO

2. Green Arrow………………………Go to such direction
3. Solid Red Light……………………Stop and wait for a green
indication.
4. Flash Red………………………….Means an arterial Stop Sign
5. Flashing Yellow……………………Means Proceed with caution
6. The use of Steady Yellow for caution is prohibited except as
warning between green and red indication.
 SIGNAL CONTROL
A solid-state mini-processor for intersections control must be
available. The mini-processor receives inputs from detectors, and
interprets their meaning, then select the appropriate set of signals
from those in the processor’s memory bank. These devices can
accept thousands of instructions per second and respond very
quickly to any changes in the traffic.
SYNCHRONIZED MOVEMENT
The four systems of coordination are:
1. Simultaneous coordination
2. Alternative coordination
3. Limited progressive
4. Flexible progressive
 Simultaneous Coordination

This makes all color indications along the street alike

at the same time. It produces high vehicle speed
between stops but have low overall speed.
 Alternative Coordination

In this, all signal changes their indication at the same

time, but adjacent signals along the street show
different colors. This is fairly well on a single street that
has approximately equal block spacing.
 Limited Progressive System

This retains a common cycle length providing separate

“GO” at each intersection to motor traffic progression.
This gives continuous or nearly continuous flow of
vehicle group at designated speed in one direction and
discourages speeding between signals.
 Flexible Progressive

This is provided with a master control that commands

the controller for the individual signals. The systems
give proper coordination between signals and make
predetermined changes in cycle length, cycle split, and
offsets at intervals during the day.
Pavement Markings
 Wayne Country of Michigan

The first early road marking was first

introduced here in the year 1911. After a
decade, pavement markings gained universal
acceptance.
Pavement Marking was
Introduced to Delineate
1. Roadway Centerline

Centerline of a road is a line representing the physical

center of a roadway between road shoulders. It often
coincides with the center painted line dividing bi
directional travel lanes.

2. Line Boundaries
The boundary line between two pieces of property.
State boundary, state line.
The boundary between two states.
3. No Passing Zone
Most commonly, the "no passing zone" traffic
sign is installed before hills or curves where you
cannot see far enough ahead to pass safely. The
sign is usually reinforced by pavement
markings, you will see a solid yellow line on
your side of the road throughout the whole
area controlled by the sign.

4. Pavement Edges
Pavement edge lines. They are not
required in urban areas with curbs.
5. Roadway Transitions
A horizontal curve provides a transition between two
tangent strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle to
negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather than a sharp
cut. The design of the curve is dependent on the
intended design speed for the roadway, as well as
other factors including drainage and friction.

6. Turning Patterns
Right turns
Move as close to the centre line as possible.
When turning on a multi-lane road, turn right from
the right lane or a lane with an arrow pointing
right.
In marked lanes, you must stay in the same lane
as you go from one road to another.
Left turns
You must make a left turn from the left side of the road.
Move close to the left side of the road
Keep to the left side of the road you are entering
Use a slip lane where one is provided.
When driving on a multi-lane road, you must turn left from the left
lane, or from a lane with a pavement arrow pointing left.
7. Approach to Obstruction
Approach pavement markings for islands and
obstructions shall consist of a tapered line or lines
extending from the center line or the lane line to
a point 300mm to 800mm to the right-hand side,
or to both sides, of the approach end of the
obstruction.

8. Light Rail or Bus Clearance

9. Stop Line
A stop line is a type of marking used
to inform drivers of the point where
they are required to stop at an
intersection or roundabout
controlled by a stop sign or traffic
signal.

10. Cross Walks

Crosswalks are often installed at
signalized intersections and other
selected locations with appropriate
levels of pedestrian and vehicle
traffic.
11. Railroad Crossings
A railroad crossing is a place where
a railroad track crosses a road at the
same level.

12. Parking Limits

Time limits. Sometimes you are only
allowed to park for a limited amount of
time or only between certain hours of
the day. This is usually corresponded
with signs at the parking place. There
are also situations where you have to
pay for parking between certain hours
of the day, and that the other hours are
free.
 In the Philippines 80% of the drivers do not respect the horizontal
markings because it is too complicated.
For example:

Continuous yellow line

Continuous white line

Broken white lines bordered by two continuous

Double continuous yellow line yellow line
 Specific Use of Colors

White is used where

vehicles may cross
markings like:

Lane Lines Stop lines

Pavement Edge Lines Cross walk
Channeling Lines Parking Space Limit Line
Turn Markings Words and Symbols
 YELLOW
Yellow Lines delineates the separation of traffic
flows like:
1. Centerline of two highways.
2. Double centerline for multi-lane roadway.
3. No passing barriers or zones of two and
three lane road and road transitions.
4. Channeling a center lane for two-way, left
turns on undivided multilane highways.
5. Obstructions must be passed to the right.
 Dashed Lines

As the line is “broken,” however, this means it

is legal to cross it when overtaking or changing
lanes. The ratio of the stripe to gap is 1 to 2
stripes – 3 meters long and 9 meters gap is
recommended for rural roads.
 The rules states that:
• A continuous line should not be placed in
sections where the visibility is greater than
the minimum length for passing.
• There should be no continuous line in the
sections where small width of travel way
hinders the drivers to respect the continuous
lane.
• The length if continuous line is strictly limited
to the indispensable length. The minimum
length is: 30 meters in rural area and 20
meters in urban areas.
 Requirements for Ideal Road
Markings
1. It must be cheaper to install.
2. Should be permanent.
3. Must be readily visible day and night, rain or
snow.
4. Even with water standing on the pavement,
the surface markings should clearly transmit
to the motorist the intended message.
5. Marking should not be destroyed by snow or
dirt-removing equipment
 Other markings

Raised Reflector
A raised reflector less than 1 inch in height illuminated by vehicle
headlight is widely used. White color is for lane marking, blue color to
outline bicycle lanes and red to facing vehicles traveling in wrong
direction to freeway entrances or exit ramps.
 Words, letters or arrows are also placed on the
pavement to notify the motorist that they are
approaching hazard zone such as railroads, school
crossing, or to mark straight through or turning lanes.
Ballotini for Reflective Road Paint
Ballotini are small glass beads used in reflective
paints and road markings giving brilliant reflective
properties.
TABLE 10-9 GRADING OF BALLOTINI
US STAN DARD SIEVE % PASSING BY WEIGHT
mm INCH
1.18 NO. 16 100
0.85 NO. 20 65-75
0.60 NO.30 45-55
0.30 NO. 50 12-25
0.18 NO. 80 0
 Reflective Pavement Stud
Reflective stud is either Flush Surface or Raised
Profile type.

TABLE 10-10 RAISED PROFILE PAVEMENT STUDS PHOTOMETRIC

PROPERTIES
SPECIFIC INTENSITY VALUES
CRYSTAL YELLOW RED
DIVERGENCE ANGLE 0.2 º 0.2 º 0.2º
0º 3.00 1.80 0.75
20 º 1.20 0.72 0.30
 ADHESIVE- When raised profile type
reflector is specified an approved epoxy
adhesive is used.

CEMENT MORTAR- shall consist of one

part portland cement to two parts fine
aggregates mixed with water.
10-12 GUIDEPOST AND MARKINGS
Guideposts are set to guide the drivers and to pinpoint
a particular or linear danger.
Six types of guideposts or beacons
1. Curve Guidepost J1
2. Intersection Guidepost J3
3. Hazard Marker J4
4. Nose Marker J5
5. Delineator J6
6. Wind Cone J7
 Delineators
Delineators are light reflecting device mounted on
posts at the side of the roadway in series to guide the
driver along the proper alignment.
 Raised Bars
Sometimes called “Jiggle Bars” used as channel
device at the nose of traffic island to keep vehicles out
of certain paved areas.

Rumble Strips
Installed across the roadways to alert the motorist as
they approach a dangerous situation like stop signs or
abrupt changes in the oncoming alignment, grade or
profile.
 Distance Marker
At the side of the roadway, kilometric markers are installed at
every 1000 meters distance. These markers are usually made of
reinforced concrete indicating the number of kilometer distance
from and to a specific place.
Today, kilometric markers were installed to
assist the motorist estimating:

1. Travel progress
2. Pinpointing accident locations
3. Distinguishing the positions of structures
such as bridge and culverts
4. To identify road sections for cost accounting
purposes.
5. To designate where maintenance is to be
done.
 10-13 GUARDRAIL
- a railing guarding usually against danger especially :
a barrier placed along the edge of a highway at
dangerous points.
 10-14 CONCRETE BARRIER
The concrete barrier was introduced in the USA. It was tested in
France in 1972. After two years of testing in real conditions, this
type of Separator was authorized in the entire road network of
France.
 10-15 Highway and Urban Street
Operations
Prior for the existence of Freeways and Expressways, Arterial
streets were the main way of traffic.

ARTERIAL STREETS- considered substitute for controlled

access when traffic volume exceeds 20,000 vehicles per day.
Basic considerations in planning arterial roads

1. Selection of convenient route.

2. Studies of traffic volume
3. Origin and destinations
4. Accident experienced.
 Planning criteria
1. Arterial road should be at least 15 meters wide.
2. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each
direction
3. It should be at least 1 km in length
4. It must skirt the neighborhood areas and not just
penetrate them
5. It should be spaced about 600 to 900 meters apart
from grid type street pattern
6. The minimum volume to justify arterial road is 30
vehicles per average hour during the day and 450
vehicles hour during peak periods.
 One Way Street
One way streets are those where traffic moves in one
direction only. Making one-way traffic is based on the
number of important advantages over the two way
operation such as:

1. Bigger Capacity
2. Fewer stops and Increasing speed
3. Improvised Pedestrian Movement.
4. Reduced Accidents
5. Elimination of Headlight Glare
 HIGHWAY AND URBAN
STREET OPERATIONS
Arterial streets were the main way of traffic.
Despite the existence of freeways and
highways arterial roads serves the major
traffic flow to the nearest access.

Arterial streets are considered substitute for

a controlled access when traffic volumes
exceeds 20000 vehicles per day.
 Basic Consideration in
planning Arterial Roads
• Selection of convenient route

• Studies of traffic volume

• Origin and destinations

• Accident Experienced
 Planning Criteria

• Arterial road must be atleast 15 meters wide.

• Must carry at least one lane of traffic in ecah direction.
• Atleast one km length
• Must skirt the neighborhood areas.
• Should be spaced about 600 -900meters apart from grid
• Needs to justify 300 vehiclr per average hour during day and 450
vehicles during peak periods.
 Solutions to unload and
increase the capacity of the
road
1. Parking is strictly prohibited during peak hour
2. No parking is allowed several meters away on each
side of intersections
3. Allowing right turns on red signal
4. Eliminating left turn at congested intersections
5. Reversing Flow of traffic in thr center lanes.
 One way Streets
• Those where traffic moves in one direction only
• Bigger Capacity- More vehicles are accommodated by
the same street system
• Fewer Stops And Increasing Speed- Fewer delay
intersections because the number of possible conflicts
• Improvised Pedestrian Movement- One crosswalk is
totally free from turning vehicles during each phase of
signal.
1. Reduces Accidents- When conflicts are eliminated,
One way operation reduces.

2. Elimination Of Headlight Glare-Ease of movement for

emergency and less attention to traffic.
 TRAFFIC CONTROL
• The most important traffic control device for street
operations are the stop and Yield signs and the Traffic
Signals.
• Yield Sign-Could be a compromise between the full
stop and no control. Traffic Manual Recommended its
use in the ff. conditions:
• That its benefit include decreased elevation costs
• Lower contribution to air pollution
• Passage time reduction of 2 to 6 seconds
• Lower Accident Frequency.
 Manual Provides minimum
warrants for traffic signal
installation based on:
• Vehicular or pedestrian volume

• Accident Experienced

• Progressive Movement

• Interruption of continuous traffic to permit cross traffic

to move as part of the network
FREEWAY AND EXPRESSWAY
OLERATIONS

• Freeways are designed for high speed, Free flowing,

low accident facilities without hindrances from traffic
control.
RECOMMENDED RELIEF TO
ALLEVIATE CONGESTIONS
• The most common of traffic breakdown is adding more vehicles on the
ramp.
• Entry of vehicles on the ramp should be restricted or stopped when
breakdown on the flow of the freeway is noticed.
• It is better to delay the few motorist who wish to enter the ramp than
those motorist traveling on the freeway.
• A simple solution to congestion on the ramp is to close the ramp
completely before the flow.
• The use of service roads or arterial streets parallel to the freeways
during leak hours.
 Motorist Problems on
freeways and Expressways
• The motorist are completely isolated from the
surrounding community
• Walking on freeway shoulders is very dangerous
• It is almost impossible to walk on elevated structures
that have neither shoulders nor walkways
• Motorist would not like to leave their vehicles for fear
or robbery and attack
• Modern vehicles are bow complex and diverse in
design that repairs by the driver or passing motorist.
 SOLUTION
• Highway patrol should provide systematic surveillance

• Emergency radio or tel should installed at roadside

• Emergency vehicles and crews should standby on call

• The agencies concerned should detail patrol cars.

 STREET LIGHTING

• AASHTO publication on Informational Guide for

Roadway Lighting recommended an average
horizontal illumination.
Recommended Illumination
• Standard proposed foot candle is 10.
• For sidewalks on commercial areas the recommended
level of illumination is 1 ft candle
• For residential street 0.4 ft candle
• Requirements for collector should fall between those
arterial and minor streets
• For freeways the uniformity ratio is set to 3:1 Or 4:1.
• The guide also recommended the right illumination.
Luminaries As street Lights
has the ff. Criteria
• Recommended practice. Install luminaires at 12. 00meters or
more above the roadway, although at present the predominant
mounting height is between 7.50 and10.50 meters.
• When mounting is high, a more uniform illumination
• High mounting of lights reduces the blinding effects of can be
maintained even though units are widely spaced glare.
• Luminaries distribute light to a definite pattern that suits particular
conditions
• For a higher mounting, the spacing could be in the range of 60
meters apart
• Uniform distribution could be adopted at intersections.
• The normal practice is to suspend the luminaries over the
roadway
 STREET PARKING

• Parking on the street substantially reduces the

capacity of the road. It creates congestions and
congestion and confusions.

Kings Highway should not be used as stable yard.

 Terms Associated With
Capacity
• MAXIMUM VOLUME

• NUMBER OF VEHICLES

• REASONABLE EXPECTATIONS

• ONE DIRECTION AGAINST TWO DIRECTIONS

• A GIVEN TIME PERIOD

• PREVAILING ROADWAY AND TRAFFIC
CONDITIONS

• AMBIENT CONDITION

• LEVEL SERVICE- Commonly accepted as measure of

the restrictive effects of increased volume.

• Weaving Section: Defined as the crossing of two or

more traffic streams travelling in the same general
directions along a significant path.
 GUIDELINES COMPOSED
OF TWO ELEMENTS

• The traffic Volume served

• Proportion the basic free way, weaving sections.

 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE
CAPACITY AND LEVEL
SERVICE
• Physical and operating width approaches
• The Physical and operating parking condition
• Physical and operating one way vs two way streets
• Environmental Condition
• Traffic Characteristics
THE END.💖