Design of Tall Structures Unit - 2: Wind Load and Earthquake Loading

DESIGN OF TALL STRUCTURES
UNIT -2
WIND LOAD AND EARTHQUAKE LOADING
WIND LOADING
Static Approach
 Uniform Building Code (1988) Method (3.2). The method is representative of modem
static methods of estimating wind loading in that it accounts for the effects of gusting
and for local extreme pressures over the faces of the building. It also accounts for
local differences in exposure between the open countryside and a city center, as
well as allowing for vital facilities such as hospitals, and fire and police stations, whose
safety must be ensured for use after an extreme windstorm.
 The design wind pressure is obtained from the formula
 Ce is a coefficient to account for the combined effects of height, exposure and
gusting
 Cq is a coefficient that allows for locally higher pressures for wall and roof elements
as compared with average overall pressures used in the design of the primary
structure.
 The pressure qs. is a wind stagnation pressure for a minimum basic 50-year wind
speed at a height of 30 ft above ground. as given for different regions of the United
Staples in a wind speed contour map
Dynamic Methods
 If the building is exceptionally slender or tall, or if it is located in extremely severe

exposure conditions, the effective wind loading on the building may be increased by
dynamic interaction between the motion of the building and the gusting of the wind.
If it is possible to allow for it in the budget of the building, the best method of
assessing such dynamic effects is by wind tunnel tests in which the relevant properties
of the building and the surrounding countryside are modeled. For buildings that are
not so extreme as to demand a wind tunnel test. but for which the simple design
procedure is inadequate, alternative dynamic methods of estimating the wind
loading by calculation have been developed. The wind tunnel experimental method
and one of the dynamic calculation methods will be reviewed
Analytical Method
 Wind tunnel testing is a highly specialized. complex, and expensive procedure, and
can be justified only for very high cost projects. To bridge the gap between those
buildings that require only a simple approach to wind loading and those that clearly
demand a wind tunnel dynamic test, more detailed analytical methods have been
developed that allow the dynamic wind loading to be calculated.
 The external pressure or suction p on the surface of the building is obtained using the
basic equation.
 in which
 The exposure factor “Ce” is based on a mean wind speed vertical profile which
varies according to the roughness of the surrounding terrain. Three types of exposure
are considered:
1. open terrain with minimal obstruction
2. Semi obstructed terrain
3. urban, and wooded areas
 The gust effect factor “gs” Is the ratio of the expected peak loading effect to the
mean loading effect.
 Coefficient Cp is the external pressure coefficient averaged over the area of
thesurface considered. Its value is influenced by the shape of the building.
Wind Tunnel Experimental Method
 Wind tunnel tests to determine loading may be quasi steady for determining the
static pressure distribution of force on a building. If the building slenderness or
flexibility is such that its response to excitation by the energy of the gusts may
significantly influence the effective wind loading. the wind tunnel test should be a
fully dynamic one. In this case, the elastic strucrural properties and the mass
distribution of the building as well as the relevant characteristics of the wind should
be modelled.
 Tall buildings typically exhibit a combination of shear and bending behavior that
has a fundamental sway mode comprising a flexurally shaped lower region and a
relatively lincar upper region. This can be represented approximately in wind
tunnel tests by a rigid model with a flexurally sprung base.
 More complex models are used when additional modes of oscillation are ex-
pected including. possibly, torsion. These models consist of Jumped masses.
springs, and flexible rods, designed to simulate the stiffnesses and mass properties
of the prototype. Wind pressure measurements are made by flush surface pressure
taps on the faces of the models, and pressure transducers are used to obtain the
mean. root mean square (RMS), and peak pressures
 The wind characteristics that have to be generated in the wind tunnel are
the vertical profile of the horizontal velocity, the turbulence intensity, and
the power spectral density of the longitudinal component. Special
boundary layer" wind tunnels have been designed to generate these
characteristics Some use long working sections in which the boundary layer
develops naturally over a rough floor other shorter ones include grids.
fences, or spires at the test section entrance together with a rough floor,
while some activate the boundary layer by jets or driven flaps. The working
sections of the tunnel are up to a maximum of about 6 ft and they operate
at atmospheric pressure
EARTHQUAKE LOADING

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DESIGN OF TALL STRUCTURES

 If the building is exceptionally slender or tall, or if it is located in extremely severe

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