SECTION 1.

A CATALOG OF
ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

A mathematical model is a mathematical

description, often by means of a function or an
equation, of a real-world phenomenon such as:
 Size of a population
 Demand for a product
 Speed of a falling object
 Life expectancy of a person at birth
 Cost of emission reductions

1.2 P2
PURPOSE

The purpose of the model is to understand the

phenomenon and, perhaps, to make predictions
about future behavior.

1.2 P3
PROCESS

The figure illustrates the process of

mathematical modeling.

1.2 P4
STAGE 1

Given a real-world problem, our first task is to

formulate a mathematical model.
 We do this by identifying and naming the
independent and dependent variables and
making assumptions that simplify the phenomenon
enough to make it mathematically tractable.

1.2 P5
STAGE 1

We use our knowledge of the physical situation

and our mathematical skills to obtain equations
that relate the variables.
 In situations where there is no physical law to
guide us, we may need to collect data—from a
library, the Internet, or by conducting our own
experiments—and examine the data in the form
of a table in order to discern patterns.

1.2 P6
STAGE 1

From this numerical representation of a function,

we may wish to obtain a graphical
representation by plotting the data.
 In some cases, the graph might even suggest
a suitable algebraic formula.

1.2 P7
STAGE 2

The second stage is to apply the mathematics

that we know—such as the calculus that will be
developed throughout this book—to the
mathematical model that we have formulated in
order to derive mathematical conclusions.

1.2 P8
STAGE 3

In the third stage, we take those mathematical

conclusions and interpret them as information
about the original real-world phenomenon—by
way of offering explanations or making
predictions.

1.2 P9
STAGE 4

The final step is to test our predictions by

checking against new real data.
 If the predictions don’t compare well with reality,
we need to refine our model or to formulate
a new model and start the cycle again.

1.2 P10
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

A mathematical model is never a completely

accurate representation of a physical situation—
it is an idealization.
 A good model simplifies reality enough to permit
mathematical calculations, but is accurate enough
to provide valuable conclusions.
 It is important to realize the limitations of the model.
 In the end, Mother Nature has the final say.

1.2 P11
LINEAR MODELS

When we say that y is a linear function of x, we

mean that the graph of the function is a line.
 So, we can use the slope-intercept form of
the equation of a line to write a formula for
the function as
y  f ( x)  mx  b
where m is the slope of the line and b is
the y-intercept.

1.2 P12
LINEAR MODELS

A characteristic feature of linear functions is

that they grow at a constant rate.
For instance, the figure shows a graph of the
linear function f(x) = 3x – 2 and a table of
sample values.

1.2 P13
LINEAR MODELS

 Notice that, whenever x increases by 0.1, the value

of f(x) increases by 0.3.
 So, f(x) increases three times as fast as x.

1.2 P14
LINEAR MODELS

 Thus, the slope of the graph y = 3x – 2, namely 3,

can be interpreted as the rate of change of y with
respect to x.

1.2 P15
Example 1

(a)As dry air moves upward, it expands and cools.

If the ground temperature is 20°C and the
temperature at a height of 1 km is 10°C,
express the temperature T (in °C) as a function
of the height h (in kilometers), assuming that
a linear model is appropriate.
(b)Draw the graph of the function in part (a).
What does the slope represent?
(c)What is the temperature at a height of 2.5 km?

1.2 P16
Example 1(a) SOLUTION

As we are assuming that T is a linear function of

h, we can write T = mh + b.
 We are given that T = 20 when h = 0, so
20 = m . 0 + b = b.
 In other words, the y-intercept is b = 20.
 We are also given that T = 10 when h = 1, so
10 = m . 1 + 20
 Thus, the slope of the line is m = 10 – 20 = – 10.
 The required linear function is
T = – 10h + 20.

1.2 P17
Example 1(b) SOLUTION

The slope is m = – 10C/km. This represents the

rate of change of temperature with respect to
height.

1.2 P18
Example 1(c) SOLUTION

At a height of h = 2.5 km, the temperature is: T

= – 10(2.5) + 20 = – 5C.

1.2 P19
POLYNOMIALS

 A function P is called a polynomial if

P(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and the

numbers a0, a1, a2, …, an are constants called
the coefficients of the polynomial.

1.2 P20
POLYNOMIALS

The domain of any polynomial is  ( , ).

If the leading coefficient an  0 , then the
degree of the polynomial is n.
 For example, the function
2 3
P( x)  2 x  x  x  2
6 4

5
is a polynomial of degree 6.

1.2 P21
DEGREE 1

A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form

P(x) = mx + b

So, it is a linear function.

1.2 P22
DEGREE 2

A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form

P(x) = ax2 + bx + c

It is called a quadratic function.

1.2 P23
DEGREE 2

 Its graph is always a parabola obtained by

shifting the parabola y = ax2.
 The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and downward
if a < 0.

1.2 P24
DEGREE 3

A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form

P( x)  ax3  bx2  cx  d (a  0)
It is called a cubic function.

1.2 P25
DEGREES 4 AND 5

The figures show the graphs of polynomials of

degrees 4 and 5.

1.2 P26
POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials are commonly used to model

various quantities that occur in the natural and
social sciences.
 For instance, in Chapter 2, we will explain why
economists often use a polynomial P(x) to represent
the cost of producing x units of a commodity.
 In the following example, we use a quadratic
function to model the fall of a ball.

1.2 P27
POWER FUNCTIONS

A function of the form f(x) = xa, where a is

constant, is called a power function.
 We consider several cases.

1.2 P28
CASE 1

a = n, where n is a positive integer

 The graphs of f(x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
are shown in Figure 6.(These are polynomials with
only one term.) We already know the shape of the
graphs of y = x (a line through the origin with slope
1) and y = x2 (a parabola).

1.2 P29
CASE 1

The general shape of the graph of f(x) = xn

depends on whether n is even or odd.
If n is even, then f(x) = xn is an even function,
and its graph is similar to the parabola y = x2.

1.2 P30
CASE 1

If n is odd, then f(x) = xn is an odd function, and

its graph is similar to that of y = x3.

1.2 P31
CASE 1

However, notice from Figure 7, as n increases,

the graph of y = xn becomes flatter near 0 and
steeper when | x | 1.
 If x is small, then x2 is smaller, x3 is even smaller,
x4 is smaller still, and so on.

1.2 P32
CASE 2

a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer

 The function f ( x)  x1/ n  n x is a root function.
 For n = 2, it is the square root function f ( x)  x ,
whose domain is [0, ) and whose graph is
the upper half of the parabola x = y2.
 For other even values
of n, the graph of y  n x
is similar to that of
y x.

1.2 P33
CASE 2

For n = 3, we have the cube root function

f ( x)  3 x whose domain is (recall that every
real number has a cube root) and whose graph is
shown in Figure 8.
 The graph of y  n x for n odd (n > 3) is similar
to that of y  3 x .

1.2 P34
CASE 3

a = – 1
 The graph of the reciprocal function f(x) = x–1 = 1/x
is shown in Figure 9.
 Its graph has the equation y = 1/x, or xy = 1.
 It is a hyperbola with
the coordinate axes as
its asymptotes.

1.2 P35
CASE 3

This function arises in physics and chemistry in

connection with Boyle’s Law, which states that,
when the temperature is constant, the volume V
of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
P. C
V 
P
where C is a constant.

1.2 P36
CASE 3

So, the graph of V as a function of P has the

same general shape as the right half of Figure 9.

1.2 P37
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

 A rational function f is a ratio of two

polynomials
P( x)
f ( x) 
Q( x)
where P and Q are polynomials.
 The domain consists of all values of x such that
Q( x)  0 .

1.2 P38
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A simple example of a rational function is the

function f(x) = 1/x, whose domain is x | x  0.
 This is the reciprocal function graphed in the figure.

1.2 P39
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

The function 2x  x  1
4 2
f ( x) 
x 4
2

is a rational function with domain x | x  2.

 Its graph is shown in Figure 10.

1.2 P40
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In calculus, the convention is that radian

measure is always used (except when otherwise
indicated).
 For example, when we use the function f(x) = sin x,
it is understood that sin x means the sine of the angle
whose radian measure is x.

1.2 P41
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

 Thus, the graphs of the sine and cosine functions are

as shown in Figure 11.

1.2 P42
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Notice that, for both the sine and cosine

functions, the domain is (, ) and the range is
the closed interval [–1, 1].
 Thus, for all values of x, we have:
1  sin x  1  1  cos x  1
 In terms of absolute values, it is:
| sin x | 1 | cos x | 1

1.2 P43
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Also, the zeros of the sine function occur at the

integer multiples of p. That is,
sin x = 0 when x = np, n an integer.
An important property of the sine and cosine
functions is that they are periodic functions and
have a period 2p.
 This means that, for all values of x,
sin( x  2p )  sin x cos( x  2p )  cos x

1.2 P44
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The periodic nature of these functions makes

them suitable for modeling repetitive
phenomena such as tides, vibrating springs, and
sound waves.

1.2 P45
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The tangent function is related to the sine and

cosine functions by the equation
sin x
tan x 
cos x
Its graph is shown in
Figure 12.

1.2 P46
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The tangent function is undefined whenever cos

x = 0, that is, when x   p ,  3p ,    
Its range is (, ) . 2 2
 Notice that the tangent
function has period p:

tan( x  p )  tan x for all x.

1.2 P47
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The remaining three trigonometric functions

(cosecant, secant, and cotangent) are the
reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent
functions.

1.2 P48
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The exponential functions are the functions of

the form f ( x)  a x, where the base a is a
positive constant.
 The graphs of y = 2x and y = (0.5)x are shown in
Figure 13.
 In both cases, the domain is (, ) and the range
is (0, ) .

1.2 P49
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

We will study exponential functions in detail in

Section 3.1.
 We will see that they are useful for modeling many
natural phenomena—such as population growth
(if a > 1) and radioactive decay (if a < 1).

1.2 P50
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The logarithmic functions f ( x)  log a x , where

the base a is a positive constant, are the inverse
functions of the exponential functions.
 We will study them in Section 3.2.

1.2 P51
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Figure 14 shows the graphs of four logarithmic

functions with various bases.
 In each case, the domain is (0, ) , the range is
(, ) , and the function increases slowly when x >
1.

1.2 P52
TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

By applying certain transformations to the graph

of a given function, we can obtain the graphs of
certain related functions.
 This will give us the ability to sketch the graphs
of many functions quickly by hand.
 It will also enable us to write equations for given
graphs.

1.2 P53
TRANSLATIONS

Let’s first consider translations.

 If c is a positive number, then the graph of y = f(x) +
c is just the graph of y = f(x) shifted upward a
distance of c units.
 This is because each y-coordinate is increased by the
same number c.
 Similarly, if g(x) = f(x – c) ,where c > 0, then the
value of g at x is the same as the value of f at x – c (c
units to the left of x).
 Therefore, the graph of y = f(x – c) is just the graph
of y = f(x) shifted c units to the right.
1.2 P54
TRANSLATIONS

1.2 P55
TRANSLATIONS

1.2 P56
TRANSFORMATIONS

Figure 16 illustrates these stretching

transformations when applied to the cosine
function with c = 2.

1.2 P57
TRANSFORMATIONS

For instance, in order to get the graph of y = 2

cos x, we multiply the y-coordinate of each
point on the graph of y = cos x by 2.
This means that the graph of y = cos x gets
stretched vertically by a factor of 2.

1.2 P58
Example 2

Given the graph of y  x , use transformations

to graph:
(a) y  x  2
(b) y  x  2
(c) y   x
(d) y  2 x
(e) y   x

1.2 P59
Example 2(a) SOLUTION

The graph of the square root function y  x is

shown in Figure 17(a).

1.2 P60
Example 2(b)~(f) SOLUTION

In the other parts of the figure, we sketch:

 y  x  2 by shifting 2 units downward.
 y  x  2 by shifting 2 units to the right.
 y x by reflecting about the x-axis.
 y2 x by stretching vertically by a factor of 2.
 y  x by reflecting about the y-axis.

1.2 P61
Example 3

Sketch the graphs of the functions y  1  sin x .

SOLUTION
 To obtain the graph of y = 1 – sin x , we again start
with y = sin x.
 We reflect about the x-axis to get the graph of y =
– sin x.
 Then, we shift 1 unit upward to get y = 1 – sin x.

1.2 P62
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Two functions f and g can be combined to form

f
new functions f + g, f – g, fg, and in a manner
g
similar to the way we add, subtract, multiply,
and divide real numbers.

1.2 P63
SUM AND DIFFERENCE

The sum and difference functions are defined by:

(f + g)x = f(x) + g(x) (f – g)x = f(x) – g(x)
 If the domain of f is A and the domain of g is B,
then the domain of f + g is the intersection A B .
 This is because both f(x) and g(x) have to be defined.
For example, the domain of f ( x)  x is A  [0, )
and the domain of g ( x)  2  x is B  (, 2]. So,
the domain of ( f  g ) x  x  2  x is A B  [0, 2] .

1.2 P64
PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT

 Similarly, the product and quotient functions

are defined by:
f f ( x)
( fg )( x)  f ( x) g ( x)   ( x) 
g g ( x)
 The domain of fg is A B .
 However, we can’t divide by 0.
 So, the domain of f/g is x  A B | g ( x)  0.
For instance, if f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – 1, then
the domain of the rational function
( f / g )( x)  x 2 /( x  1) is  x | x  1 , or (,1) (1, ).
1.2 P65
COMBINATIONS

There is another way of combining two

functions to obtain a new function.
 For example, suppose that y  f (u )  u
and u  g ( x)  x 2  1.
 Since y is a function of u and u is, in turn, a function
of x, it follows that y is ultimately a function of x.
 We compute this by substitution:
y  f (u)  f ( g ( x))  f ( x 2  1)  x 2  1
This procedure is called composition—because
the new function is composed of the two given
functions f and g. 1.2 P66
COMPOSITION

In general, given any two functions f and g, we

start with a number x in the domain of g and
find its image g(x).
 If this number g(x) is in the domain of f, then we can
calculate the value of f(g(x)).
 The result is a new function h(x) = f(g(x)) obtained
by substituting g into f.
 It is called the composition (or composite) of f and g.
 It is denoted by f g (“f circle g”).

1.2 P67
Definition

Given two functions f and g, the composite

function f g (also called the composition of f
and g) is defined by:
( f g )( x)  f ( g ( x))

1.2 P68
COMPOSITION

The domain of f g is the set of all x in the

domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
 In other words, ( f g )( x) is defined whenever both
g(x) and f(g(x)) are defined.
Figure 19 shows how to picture f g in terms of
machines.

1.2 P69
Example 4

If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – 3, find the composite

functions f g and g f .

SOLUTION
 We have

( f g )( x)  f ( g ( x))  f ( x  3)  ( x  3)2
( g f )( x)  g ( f ( x))  g ( x )  x  3
2 2

1.2 P70
Note

You can see from Example 4 that, in

general, f g  g f .
 Remember, the notation f g means that, first, the
function g is applied and, then, f is applied second.
 In Example 4, f g is the function that first
subtracts 3 and then squares; g f is the function
that first squares and then subtracts 3.

1.2 P71
Example 5

 If f ( x)  x and g ( x)  2  x , find each

function and its domain.
(a) f g
(b) g f
(c) f f
(d) g g

1.2 P72
Example 5(a) SOLUTION

( f g )( x)  f ( g ( x))  f ( 2  x)  2x  4 2x

 The domain of f g is:

x | 2  x  0  x | x  2  (, 2]

1.2 P73
Example 5(b) SOLUTION

(g f )( x)  g ( f ( x))  g ( x )  2  x

 For x to be defined, we must have x  0 .

 For 2  x to be defined, we must have 2  x  0,
that is, x  2 , or x  4 .
 Thus, we have 0  x  4 .
 So, the domain of g f is the closed interval [0, 4].

1.2 P74
Example 5(c) SOLUTION

(f f )( x)  f ( f ( x))  f ( x )  x 4x

 The domain of f f is [0, ).

1.2 P75
Example 5(d) SOLUTION

( g g )( x)  g ( g ( x)  g ( 2  x )  2  2  x

 This expression is defined when both 2  x  0 and

2  2  x  0.
 The first inequality means x  2 .
 The second is equivalent to 2  x  2 , or 2  x  4 ,
or x  2 .
 Thus, 2  x  2, so the domain of g g is
the closed interval [-2, 2].

1.2 P76
COMPOSITION

It is possible to take the composition of three or

more functions.
 For instance, the composite function f g h is
found by first applying h, then g, and then f as
follows:
( f g h)( x)  f ( g (h( x)))

1.2 P77
COMPOSITION

So far, we have used composition to build

complicated functions from simpler ones.
However, in calculus, it is often useful to be
able to decompose a complicated function into
simpler ones—as in the following example.

1.2 P78
Example 6

Given F ( x )  cos 2
( x  9) , find functions f, g,
and h such that F  f g h .
SOLUTION
 Since F(x) = [cos(x + 9)]2, the formula for F states:
First add 9, then take the cosine of the result, and
finally square.
 So, we let:
h( x )  x  9
g ( x)  cos x
f ( x)  x 2
1.2 P79
Example 6 SOLUTION

 Then,
( f g h)( x)
 f ( g (h( x )))
 f ( g ( x  9))
 f (cos( x  9))
 [cos( x  9)]
2

 F ( x)

1.2 P80