Revision notes

By: Marta Ihuhwa

PEEE
 Difference Between Star and Delta Connection
• The terminals of the three branches are connected to a common point.
The network formed is known as Star Connection. The three branches of
the network are connected in such a way that it forms a closed loop
known as Delta Connection.

• In a star connection, the starting and the finishing point ends of the three
coils are connected together to a common point known as the neutral
point. But in Delta connection, there is no neutral point. The end of each
coil is connected to the starting point of the other coil that means the
opposite terminals of the coils are connected together.

• In Star connection, the line current is equal to the Phase current, whereas
in Delta Connection the line current is equal to root three times of the
Phase Current.

• In Star connection, line voltage is equal to root three times of the Phase
Voltage, whereas in Delta Connection line voltage is equal to the Phase
voltage.
 Difference Between Star and Delta Connection
• The Speed of the star connected motors is slow as they receive 1/√3 of the voltage but the
Speed of the delta connected motors is high because each phase gets the total of the line
voltage.

• In Star Connection, Phase voltage is low as 1/√3 times of the line voltage, whereas in Delta
Connection Phase voltage is equal to the line voltage.

• Star Connections are mainly required for the Power Transmission Network for longer
distances, whereas in Delta connection mainly in Distribution networks and is used for
shorter distances.

• In Star Connection, each winding receives 230 volts and in Delta Connection, each winding
receives 415 volts.

• Both 3 phase 4 wire and 3 phase 3 wire system can be derived in the star connection,
whereas in Delta Connection only 3 phase 4 wire system can be derived.
• The amount of Insulation required in Star Connection is low and in Delta Connection high
insulation level is required.
Substations
 Substations
• What is a Substation?
A substation is a bunch of electrical devices gathered and connected in one place.

SUBSTATION - A station in the power transmission system at which electric power is

transformed to a conveniently used form. The station may consist of transformers,
switches, circuit breakers and other auxiliary equipment. Its main function is to receive
energy transmitted at high voltage from the generating station, by either step-up or
step-down the voltage to a value appropriate for local use and provide facilities for
switching. Substations have some additional functions. Its provide points where safety
devices may be installed to disconnect circuits or equipment in the event of trouble.
Some substation, such as power plant switchyard are simply switching stations where
different connections can be made between various transmission lines.
 Lightening arrestor
• A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-
voltage transients caused by external (lightning) or internal (switching)
events. This is usually achieved through use of a varistor, which has
substantially different resistances at different voltages.
• The electrical installations are exposed to overvoltage stresses caused by
various sources. By nature, the overvoltages caused by the sources have
different characteristics in terms of magnitude, frequency, duration and
rate of rise.
• The surge arrester should withstand the continuous and temporary power
frequency overvoltages experienced in the system during normal
operation, system faults and switching operations. The surge arresters also
have to be able to limit the surge overvoltages below the specified
withstand level of the equipment in the installation.
 Single Line Diagram of Power System
• Single line diagram is the representation of a power system using the simple
symbol for each component. The single line diagram of a power system is the
network which shows the main connections and arrangement of the system
components along with their data (such as output rating, voltage, resistance and
reactance).

• In the single line diagram, the system component is usually drawn in the form of
their symbols. Generator and transformer connections, star, delta and neutral
earthing are indicated by symbols drawn by the side of the representation of these
elements.
single line diagrams
SDL
electrical symbols
 Protective Relays
• Protective relay work as a sensing device, it senses the fault, then known its
position and finally, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker. The circuit
breaker after taking the command from the protective relay, disconnect the faulted
element.

The working of the relay is either depends on

the electromagnetic attraction or
electromagnetic induction.
The electromagnetic attraction type relay has a
solenoid which is attracted towards the poles
of the electromagnet. This relays works on
both the AC and DC supply.

The electromagnetic induction type relay uses

the induction motor inside which the torque is
generated by the process of electromagnetic
induction. Such type of relays works only on ac
quantities.
 Protective relays
To attain the desired reliability, the power The relay employed for protection of the
system network is divided into two apparatus and transmission lines are as follows.
different protection zones. The overall
•Overcurrent Relays
system protection is divided into
•Under-frequency Relays
different protection zones.
•Directional Relays
• generator protection
•Thermal Relays
• transformer protection •Phase Sequence Relays
• bus protection •Negative phase sequence Relays
• transmission line protection •Positive sequence Relays
• feeder protection. •Distance or impedance Relays
•Phase Impedance Relay
• The protective relays do not eliminate
•Angle Impedance Relay
the possibility of fault occurrence on •Ohm (or reactance ) Relay
the power system rather their circuit •Angle Impedance Relay
actions start only after the fault has •Mho’s Relay offset or Restricted Relay
occurred on the system. The main •Pilot Relays
features of a good protective relaying •Carrier channel pilot or Microwave pilot Relays
are its reliability, sensitivity, simplicity,
speed, and economy.
 Why is the core of Transformers laminated?
The core is not designed to have any currents flow through it. It is however a conducting loop that
experiences a changing magnetic field, it will therefore have small currents induced in it - these
are called 'eddy currents'.

• The core is laminated to reduce these to a minimum as they interfere with the efficient
transfer of energy from the primary coil to the secondary one.

• The eddy currents cause energy to be lost from the transformer as they heat up the core -
meaning that electrical energy is being wasted as unwanted heat energy.

• Laminated means 'made up of insulated layers of iron 'glued' together' rather than being in a
single solid 'lump'.
• A laminated core has a higher resistance than a non-laminated one with the same number of
domains. It therefore does not get such big a currents induced in it
 Auto-transformers
• Autotransformer has only one single voltage winding which is common to both
sides. This single winding is “tapped” at various points along its length to provide a
percentage of the primary voltage supply across its secondary load. Then the
autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but only has one winding, which is
common to both the primary and secondary circuits.
Applications for Autotransformer

• Reduced voltage starter for induction motor

• Starting gear for certain types of fluorescent
light fixtures
• Booster at the end of long transmission line
to compensate for line losses
• Multi-tap type feeding the primary of
plating rectifier transformer, to enable
rectifier output control

• Autotransformers are used in power applications to interconnect systems operating at

different voltage classes like 132 kV to 66 kV for transmission.
• To compensate for line voltage drop – Long power line suffer from voltage drop in
applications that draw high current. Autotransformers can be used to compensate for
this loss of voltage.
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit Test on Transformer

• Various performance parameters of transformers can be calculated if we

know values of parameters in equivalent circuit.
• These parameters can be easily determined by performing tests that
involve little power consumption.
• Two tests - no-load test (or open circuit test) and short circuit test
provides information for determining the parameters of the equivalent
circuit.
 Open Circuit Test

• The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the no-load current and losses
of the transformer and determine the no-load parameter.
• The test is performed on the primary winding of the transformer.
• The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltage are connected to their primary winding.
• The nominal rated voltage is supplied to their primary winding with the help of the
ac source.
• The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open and the voltmeter is
connected to their terminal. This voltmeter measures the secondary induced
voltage.
• As the secondary of the transformer is open the no-load current flows through the
primary winding.
 Short Circuit Test

• The short circuit test is performed the copper loss occur on the full load. The
copper loss is used for finding the efficiency of the transformer.
• Determine the equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are
known by the short circuit test.
• The short circuit test is performed on the secondary or high voltage winding
of the transformer.
• The measuring instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter are
connected to the High voltage winding of the transformer
• The primary winding is shortcircuited by the help of thick strip or ammeter
which is connected to their terminal.

• The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding because of
which the full load current flows from both the secondary and the primary
winding of the transformer. The full load current is measured by the ammeter
connected across their secondary winding.