Algebra

ENGR. CARMELITA C. ARBOZO

Aeronautical Engineering Board Exams 2019
Review
 Scope of review
 The Number Systems  Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions
 Exponents and Radicals
 Variations
 Polynomials
 Systems of Equation in
Factoring of Polynomials Two or more Variables
 Rational Expressions  Partial Fractions
 Binomial Theorem  Sequence, Series,
 Complex Numbers Progressions
 Equations in One Variable  Permutation,
Combination, Probability
 Inequalities
The Number Systems
Number

 A number is an item that

describes a magnitude or a
position.
Types of Numbers:
a. Cardinal numbers – numbers which
allow us to count the objects or ideas in a
given collection.
Examples:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5.......

b. Ordinal numbers – state the position

of individual objects in a sequence.
Examples:
first, second, third....
Numerals
 Numerals are symbols or combination of symbols
which describe a number
Arabic Numerals – 0,1,2,3....
Roman Numerals – written in Latin Alphabet
I=1 C = 100
V=5 D = 500
X = 10 M = 1000
L = 50
The romans used the following
to indicate large numbers:
o Bracket - to multiply it by 100 times
{ V } = 500
o Vinculum - (bar above the number) –
to multiply the numerator by 1000 times
V = 5,000
o Doorframe - to multiply the number
by 1000000
V = 5,000,000
The Number System:

1. Real Numbers
2. Imaginary Numbers
1. Real numbers

 Natural Numbers
 Integers
 Rational Numbers
 Irrational Numbers
Natural numbers

 numbers which are considered as the

counting numbers

Examples: 1, 2, 3...
Integer

 all the natural number, the negative of

the natural numbers and the number
zero.

Examples: -4, -1, 0, 3, 8...

Rational numbers
 are real numbers which can be expressed as a ratio of two
integers.
a. Integers (positive and negative integers)
b. Fractions (positive and negative fractions)
c. Zero

Examples: 0.5, 2/3, -3, 0.333...

0.5 can be expressed as ½ and -3 can be expressed as -
6/2, hence the two examples are rational numbers. The
number 0.333 can also be expressed as 1/3 and therefore a
rational number.
The number 0.333...is a repeating and non terminating
decimal. As a rule, a non terminating but repeating (or
periodic) decimal is always a rational number.
Irrational numbers

 are real numbers which cannot be

expressed as a ratio or quotient of two
integers.

Examples: 2, 𝜋, e,...
The numbers above can never be
expressed exactly as a quotient of two
integers. They are in fact, a non
terminating number with non
terminating decimal.
Imaginary number

 An imaginary Number is denoted as “i”

which is equal to square root of negative
one.

 Imaginary numbers and its equivalent:

i = −1
i2 = -1
i3 = -i = - −1
i4 = 1
Complex number
 A Complex Number is an expression of
both real and imaginary number combined.
It takes the form of a+bi, where “a” and “b”
are real numbers

 If a = 0, then pure imaginary number is

produced while real number is obtained
when b= 0.

Example: The number -3 + 6i is a complex

number whose real part is -3 and whose
imaginary part is 6
 System of numbers

Imaginary
Numbers
Absolute Value
 The absolute value of a number is the
numerical value of the number
neglecting the sign.

 The absolute value of -5 is 5 while –z is z.

The absolute value [b] is either
positive or zero but can never be
negative.
Fractions

 Fractions are numbers which are in

𝒂
the form , where a is called the
𝒃
numerator which may be any integer
while b is called the denominator which
may be any integer greater than zero.
Fraction is also defined as a part of a
whole.
Types of fractions
1. Simple Fraction – numerator and denominator
are both integers. Also called common fraction.
(2/3, -4/9).
2. Proper Fraction – numerator is smaller than
the denominator. (5/8, 2/3)
3. Improper Fraction – numerator is greater
than the denominator. (5/2, 8/3).
4. Reciprocal – a fraction that results in
interchanging the numerator and the
denominator. ( 4 is the reciprocal of ¼)
5. Complex Fraction – numerator and
3Τ
denominator are both fractions. 7Τ
4
8
Types of fractions
6. Similar Fractions - two or more simple
fractions that have the same
denominator. (1/5, 2/5)
7. Undefined Fraction - a fraction with a
denominator of zero. ( 5/0 )
8. Indeterminate Fraction - a fraction
which has no quantitative meaning. (0/0)
9. Mixed Number - combination of an
integer and a proper fraction. (5 ½ , 3 ¼ )
Composite Number and
prime number
 Composite Number
Are positive integers that have more than two positive
whole number factors. (6 is a composite number
because its factors are 1,2,3, and 6)

o Prime Number
An integer greater than 1 that is divisible only by 1
and itself. (2, 3,5,7)

Note: The number 1 is the only natural number that is

neither composite nor prime. The number 2 is
the only prime number which is an even number.
Types of prime numbers
 Twin Primes - are set of two consecutive odd
primes which differ by two.
Examples: 3, 5 5, 7 11, 13
 Symmetric Primes or Euler Primes - pair of
prime numbers that are the same distance from a
given number in a number line.
Examples: Number: Symmetric Prime:
4 3, 5
5 3, 7
6 5, 7
Emirp (prime spelled backwards)

 prime number that remains a prime

when its digits are reversed.

Examples:
11, 13, 17, 31, 71, 73, 79, 97, 101
Perfect Number
 an integer that is equal to the sum of all
its possible divisors, except the number
itself.

Examples: 6, 28

In the case of 6, the factors or

divisors are 1, 2 and 3. When the factors
are added, the sum is equal to the
number itself.
1+2+3=6
Factorial !

 denoted by n!, represents the product of

all positive integers from 1 to n inclusive.

Example: 4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24
3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6
Significant Figures or
Digits:
 Are digits that define the numerical value of
a number
 A digit is considered significant unless it is
used to place a decimal point.
 The significant digit of a number begins with
the first non zero digit and ends with the
final digit, whether zero or non zero.
 ( 15.95 ) has 4 significant figures, 1.674 x 103
has 4 significant figures, 0.0016 has 2
significant figures)
 Forms of Approximation:
1. Rounding – means replacing the number with another
number having fewer significant decimal digits or for integer
number, fewer value carrying (non – zero) digits.
Examples:
3.14159 shall be rounded up to 3.1416
2.1334 shall be rounded up to 2.133
2. Truncation – refers to dropping of the next digits in order
to obtain the degree of accuracy beyond the need of practical
calculations.
Example:
3.1415 is truncated to 3 decimal as 3.141
Proportion:

 Is a statement that the two ratios are

equal

Example: a:x = y:c, a and c are called

extremes, while x and y are called
means

a:x = a/x, a is called antecedent, while

x is called consequent
Properties of proportion
1. If a/y = x/d , then a:x = y:d

2. If a/b = c/d , then a/c = b/d

3. If a/b = c/d , then b/a = d/c

4. If a/b = c/d , then a – b/b = c – d/d

5. If a/b = c/d , then a + b/b = c + d/d

6. If a/b = c/d , then a + b/a – b = c + d/c - d

Least Common Denominator
(LCD):
 Refers to product of several prime numbers
occurring in the denominators each taken with
its great multiplicity.

Example: What is the least common

denominator of 8, 9, 12, and 15
Soln: 8 = 23
9 = 32
12 = 3 . 22
15 = 3 . 5
LCD = 23 (32)(5)
LCD = 360
 Least Common Multiple
(LCM):

 Is the lowest multiple of two numbers

Example: What is the least common

multiple of 15 and 18?
Soln: 15 = 3 . 5
18 = 32 . 2

LCM = 32 (5)(2)
LCM = 90
 Greatest Common Factor
(GCF):
 Is the largest number that divides into two or
more numbers evenly.

Example: What is the greatest common factor of

70 and 112?

Solution: 70 = 2 x 5 x 7
112 = 24 x 7, Common factors are 2
and 7
GCF = 2(7) = 14
Properties of Integers:
 The Field axioms of real numbers:

1. Closure property: a+b = integer, ab = integer

2.Commutative property: a+b = b+a, ab = ba
3. Associative property: (a+b)+c = a+(b+c), (ab)c = a(bc)
4. Identity property: a+0 = a, the number 0 is called
the additive identity, a+1 =a, the number 1 is called
the multiplicative identity
5. Inverse property: a+(-a) = 0, the number –a is called
the additive inverse, a(1/a) =1, the number 1/a is
called the multiplicative inverse
6. Distributive property: a(b+c) = ab+ac
 Properties of Equivalence Relation:

1. Reflexive property: a = a
2. Symmetric property: if a = b, then b = a
3. Transitive property: if a = b and b = c, then
a=c
4. Substitution property: if a = b, then a can be replaced by
b in any expression involving a
5. Addition/Subtraction property: if a = b, then a+c = b+c, if a
= b, then a – c = b – c
6. Multiplication/Division property: if a = b, then ac = bc, if a
= b then a/c = b/c with c not equal to 0.
7. Cancellation Property: if a + c = b + c, then a = b. If ac =
bc and c ≠ 0, then a = b
The properties of Zero:
1. a + 0 = a and a – 0 = a
2. a(0) = 0
3. 0/a = 0, with a not zero
4. a/0 is undefined
5. If ab = 0, then a= 0 or b = 0. This is
called as the zero factor property
Exponents and radicals
Exponents:
 Number that gives the power to
which a base is raised.
 32 the base is 3 and the exponent
is 2.
 32 = 9 the number 9 is called the
power.
Properties of Exponents:
Property: Example:
am . an = am + n x2 . x3 = x2 + 3 = x5
𝑎𝑚 𝑥8
= 𝑎 𝑚−𝑛 = 𝑥 8−3 = 𝑥5
𝑎𝑛 𝑥3
𝑎𝑚 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥 6 2 = x12
𝑎𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 (3x)3 = 33x3 = 27x3
𝑎 𝑚 𝑎𝑚 3 3 33 27
= = =
𝑏 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥3
𝑚 5
𝑛 3
𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 4𝑥 3 = 4𝑥 5

1 1
𝑎−𝑚 = 𝑥 −9 =
𝑎𝑚 𝑥 −9
a0 = 1 ( a not zero ) (x2 + 2)0 =1
Examples
1. Find the following products:
a. (4x4y3)(-5x5y2)
= -20x9y5
b. (4nx5n)(5nx4n)
= 20n2x9n
c. (2x3y2z)3(-x2y3z4)4
= 8x17y18z19

2. Find the following quotients:

8𝑎5 𝑏2 4𝑎2
a. =
2𝑎3 𝑏8 𝑏6
6𝑛𝑥 6𝑛
b. = 2𝑥 3𝑛
3𝑛𝑥 3𝑛
Example
 Write as simple fractions with only
positive exponents
−2
𝑥 −3 𝑦 4 𝑧 −5
𝑥 6 𝑦 −2 𝑧 −4
𝑥 6 𝑦 −8 𝑧 10
= = 𝑥 6+12 𝑦 −8−4 𝑧10−8
𝑥 −12 𝑦 4 𝑧 8
𝑥 12 𝑧 2
= 12 Answer
𝑦
Radical

Radical -refers to symbol that indicates a

root √ in the expression, 𝑛 𝑎 , n is called the
index, a is called the radicand, the symbol√
is called radical
Properties of Radicals:
Additional Examples
 Simplify each of the following radicals
a. 81𝑥 4 𝑦 3
= 34 𝑥 4 𝑦 3
= 32 𝑥 2 𝑦
= 9𝑥 2 𝑦

4
b. 80𝑥 8 𝑦 7
4
= 24 5𝑥 8 𝑦 7
4
= 2𝑥 2 5𝑦 3
 Addition and subtraction of
radicals
1. 98 + 2 2 − 32
= 49 ∙ 2 + 2 2 − 16 ∙ 2
= 7 2 +2 2 −4 2
= 5 2 (Answer)

𝟑 𝟔
2. 𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 3 𝟐𝟓𝒙𝟒

= (5x2)1/3 + 3(25x4)1/6
= (5x2)2/6 + 3(25x4)1/6
= (52/6 x4/6) + 3(251/6 x4/6)
= (5x2)2/6 + 3(52x4)1/6
= (5x2)2/6 + 3(5x2)2/6
= (5x2)2/6 (1 + 3)
3
= 4 5𝑥 2 (Answer)
 Multiplication and division
of radicals
 Find the product and simplify the result:
3 3
126𝑟 2 𝑠 2 𝑡 ∙ 36𝑟𝑠 2 𝑡 2
3 3
= 2 ∙ 32 ∙ 7𝑟 2 𝑠 2 t ∙ 22 ∙ 32 𝑟𝑠 2 𝑡 2
3
= 23 ∙ 34 ∙ 7𝑟 3 𝑠 4 𝑡 3
3
= (23 ∙ 33 𝑟 3 𝑠 3 𝑡 3 )(3 ∙ 7𝑠)
3 3
= (2 ∙ 3𝑟𝑠𝑡)3 ∙ 3 ∙ 7𝑠
3
= 6rst 21𝑠 (Answer)
Multiplication and division of
radicals
 Rationalize the denominator:

3
a.
2𝑥
3 2𝑥 6𝑥
= ∙ =
2𝑥 2𝑥 22 𝑥 2
6𝑥
=
2𝑥

3 3𝑥 2 3 (3𝑥 2 )(22 𝑦) 3 12𝑥 2 𝑦

b . = =
2𝑦 2 (2𝑦 2 )(22 𝑦) (2𝑦)3
3
12𝑥 2 𝑦
=
2𝑦
Rationalizing the denominator

 Express with a rationalized denominator

1
3
5𝑦
3 3
1∙ (5𝑦)2 25𝑦 2
= 3 3 = 3
5𝑦 ∙ (5𝑦)2 (5𝑦)3
3
25𝑦 2
= (Answer)
5𝑦
Rationalizing the denominator

 Rationalize the fraction

5− 2
5+ 2
5− 2 5− 2
= ∙
5+ 2 5− 2
25 −2 10 + 4 5+2−2 10
= =
25 − 4 5 −2
7 −2 10
= Answer
3
Rationalizing the denominator
 Rationalize the denominator
2
𝑥+3 𝑦
2 𝑥−3 𝑦
=
𝑥+3 𝑦 𝑥 −3 𝑦
2 𝑥−3 𝑦
=
𝑥 2 −9 𝑦 2

2 𝑥−6 𝑦
= Answer
𝑥 −9𝑦
Polynomials
Terminologies
 Polynomial – an algebraic expression
involving only non – negative integer
powers of one or more variables and
containing no variable in the
denominator.
Example:
2x, 5x2 + 5, 3x2 + 4x + 5 are
polynomials in the variable x...3x2y3,
6x2 + 8y2 are polynomials in the
variable x and y.
 Constant – a symbol whose domain
contains only one element
Example: 6x2 + 2x + 5, 6, 2, and 5 are
constants
 Terminologies
 Algebraic Expression – used to mean a
constant, a variable, or combinations of variables
and constants involving a finite number of
indicated operations
Example: 3x2, 5x + 2
 Term - a constant or a constant multiplied by
non – negative integer powers of variables.
Example: 5x2 + 3x + 5 has three (3) terms
 Coefficient – any factor of a product is a said to
be the coefficient of the other factors.
Example: 5xyz, the coefficient of 5x is yz, the
coefficient of x is 5yz and so on
TERMINOLOGIES

 Constant Coefficient – a coefficient that is a constant

Example: 5xyz, 5 is the constant coefficient of xyz
 Like terms – terms that may differ only in their constant
coefficients
Example: 6x2 and 3x2 are like terms
 Monomial – a polynomial that has one term
 Binomial – a polynomial that has two terms
 Trinomial – a polynomial that has three terms
 Degree of a monomial – exponent of the variable in a
monomial
Example: 5x3 has a degree 3
TERMINOLOGIES

 Note: If a polynomial has more than one

variable, its degree is the sum of the
exponents of all the variables that
appear. The degree of 3x2y5 is 7, the
degree of 4 is 0, the constant zero (0) has
no degree.
 Degree of a polynomial – highest
degree in the polynomial
Example: 7x2 – 4x + 2 is a second
degree polynomial
 Addition and subtraction of
polynomials
1. 7a2b - 3a2b + 8ab2 - 5ab2 - 6ab2
= 4a2b - 3ab2

2. (−5𝑢3 𝑣 4 + 9𝑢) + −5𝑢3 𝑣 4 − 8𝑢 + 8𝑢2 𝑣 2 + (−8𝑢4 𝑣 2 +8𝑢3 𝑣 4 )

= −2𝑢3 𝑣 4 − 8𝑢4 𝑣 2 + 8𝑢2 𝑣 2 + 𝑢

3. −9𝑥𝑦 3 − 9𝑥 4 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 3 + 7𝑦 4 − 8𝑥 4 𝑦 4 + (3𝑥 4 𝑦 3 + 2𝑥𝑦 3 )

= −𝟖𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟒 − 𝟔𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟕𝒚𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙𝒚𝟑
 Example of Multiplication and
division of Polynomials
Multiplication and division of polynomials
1. (2x + 7) (3x – 4) = 2x(3x – 4)+7(3x–4)
= 6x2 - 8x + 21x - 28
= 6x2 + 13x – 28
FOIL method can also be used

2. Divide 6x2 + 13x – 28 by 3x – 4

2𝑥 + 7
3𝑥 − 4 6x2 + 13x – 28
6𝑥 2 − 8𝑥
21𝑥 − 28
21𝑥 − 28
0
 Multiplication and division of
polynomials
10𝑥 5 12𝑥 4 6𝑥 3
3. 10x5 - 12x4 + 6x3 = − + = 5x3 - 6x2 + 3x
2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2

4. Divide 2x3 – 5x2 + 6x - 3 by x – 2

2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4
𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3
2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2
−𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
−𝑥 2 + 2x
4𝑥 − 3
4𝑥 − 8
5
 Multiplication and division of
polynomials
5. Divide 6𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 4 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 − 2, and use the result
to factor polynomial completely.
6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2
𝑥 − 2 6𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 4
6𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2
−7𝑥 2 + 16𝑥
−7𝑥 2 + 14𝑥
2𝑥 − 4
2𝑥 − 4
0
Therefore
6𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)( 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2)

And factoring the quadratic 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2

6𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 4 = 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 2)
Synthetic Division
Dividing by using synthetic
division

 Divide 2x3 – 5x2 + 6x - 3 by x – 2

2 2 - 5 + 6 - 3
4 - 2 +8
2 -1 + 4 + 5 remainder
ans: 2x2 – x + 4 remainder 5
The remainder theorem

 states that if a polynomial in an

unknown quantity x is divided by a
first degree expression in the same
variable, (x – k), where k may be any
real number or complex number, the
remainder to be expected will be equal
to the sum obtained when the
numerical value of k is substituted for
x in the polynomial.
Example
 Divide 2x3 – 5x2 + 6x – 3 by x – 2 previous problem

ans. 2x2 – x + 4 + 5 the remainder

x -2

Using the remainder theorem, we can find the remainder by,

P(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + 6x – 3, subs. x = 2

= 2(2)3 - 5(2)2 + 6(2) – 3
= 5 the remainder
The factor theorem
 states that if a polynomial is divided by (x – k)
will result to a remainder of zero, then the value
(x – k) is a factor of the polynomial.

Example:
Show that x – 4 is a factor of 2x3 – 6x2 – 5x – 12
If P(x) = 2x3 – 6x2 – 5x – 12, then
P(4) = 2(4)3 – 6(4)2 – 5(4) – 12
= 0 , therefore x – 4 is a factor
 Special Products of Polynomials:

1. Sum and Difference of same terms or Difference of two squares

(x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2
2. Square of a Binomial
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
3. Cube of a Binomial
(x + y) 3 = x3 +3x2y +3xy2 +y3
(x – y)3 = x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3
4. Difference of two Cubes
x3 – y3 = (x – y)(x2 + xy + y2)
5. Sum of two Cubes
x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2)
6. Square of a Trinomial
(x + y + z)2 =x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz +2yz
Factoring Polynomials
Types of factoring:
1. Common Factor
Form: ac + bc = c(a + b)
2. Difference of Two Squares
Form: a2 – b2 = (a +b) (a –b)
3. Perfect Square Trinomial
Form: a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2
4. Square of a Trinomial/Polynomial
Form: a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc =
(a + b + c)2
Factoring Polynomials
Types of factoring:
5. Grouping
a. Grouping to produce a common factor
a2 – b2 + a – b = (a2 – b2) + (a – b)
= (a + b)(a – b) + (a – b)
= (a – b)[(a + b) + 1]
= (a – b )(a + b + 1)
b. Grouping to produce a difference of two squares
a2 + b2 – c2 – 2ab = (a2 – 2ab + b2) – c2
= (a – b)2 – c2
= [(a – b) + c][(a - b) - c]
= (a – b + c)(a – b – c)
Factoring Polynomials
Types of factoring:

6. Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

Form: a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)
a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
7. Synthetic Division
 Examples
1. Factor 16t2 + 40t + 25 = (4t + 5)2

perfect square trinomial

2. Factor x2 + 3x – 28 = (x – 4)(x + 7)

Factor 9x4 – 37x2 + 4

We note that if the middle term were -12x2, the polynomial would be a
perfect square trinomial. Hence we add 25x2 to the middle term and then
subtract 25x2 from the resulting expression
9x4 – 37x2 + 4 = 9x4 – 37x2 + 25x2 +4 – 25x2
= (9x4 – 12x2 + 4) – 25x2
= (3x2 – 2)2 - (5x)2
= (3x2 – 2 + 5x)(3x2 – 2 – 5x) = (x + 2)(3x – 1)(3x + 1)(x – 2)
Examples (Factoring by grouping)
 Factor the polynomials
a. 16a2 – 8ab + b2 – c2 + 6c – 9 c. 2xy + 8x + 3y + 12
b. a3 – b3 – a + b

a. 16a2 – 8ab + b2 – c2 + 6c – 9
= (16a2 – 8ab + b2) – (c2 – 6c + 9)
= (4a – b)2 – (c – 3)2
= [(4a – b) + (c – 3)][(4a - b) – (c – 3)] Grouping to produce Difference
= (4a – b + c – 3)(4a – b – c + 3) of Two squares

b. a3 – b3 – a + b = (a3 – b3) – (a – b)
= (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2) – (a – b)
= (a – b)[(a2 + ab + b2) – 1]
= (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2 – 1)

c. 2xy + 8x + 3y + 12 = (2xy + 8x) + (3y + 12)

= 2x(y + 4) + 3(y + 4) = (y + 4)(2x + 3)

Grouping to produce a
common factor
Examples
 Factor the polynomials
a. x6 – 64 b. x6 – 16x3 + 64

a. x6 – 64 = (x3)2 – 82
= (x3 + 8)(x3 – 8)
= (x + 2)(x2 – 2x + 4)(x – 2)(x2 + 2x + 4)

b. x6 – 16x3 + 64 = (x3)2 + 2(-8)x3 + (-8)2

= (x3 – 8)2
= [(x – 2)(x2 + 2x + 4)]2
= (x – 2)2(x2 + 2x + 4)2
Examples (sum and difference of
two cubes)
 Factor the binomial 125x3 + y9
= (5x)3 + (y3)3
= (5x + y3)[(5x)2 – (5x)(y3) + (y3)2]
= (5x + y3)(25x2 – 5xy3 + y6)

Factor the binomial 8 – b3

= 23 – b3
= (2 – b)(22 + 2b + b2)
= (2 – b)(4 + 2b + b2)
Factoring by Grouping

1) Factor 3x + 4xy – 3x – 4y by grouping.

3x + 4xy – 3x – 4y
= x(3x + 4y) – (3x + 4y)
= (3x + 4y)(x – 1)

2) Factor ax – ab – 2bx + 2b by grouping.

ax – ab – 2bx + 2b
= a(x – b) – 2b(x – b)
= (x – b)(a -2b)
Rational expressions
Rational Numbers and Rational
expressions

 A rational number can be written as a quotient of two

integers, in the form , where the denominator, b, is
not 0.
 A rational expression is the indicated quotient of two
polynomials where the value of the denominator is
assumed to be nonzero.
 Rational Expressions:
 If the numerator and the denominator
of a fraction are polynomials, then the
fraction is called a rational
expression ( 3x + 2)/(x2 – 4), 2/5rs are
examples of rational expressions.

 A rational expression is said to be in

lowest terms if the numerator and
denominator have no common factor
other than 1 and -1.
 1.
Multiplying and Dividing
Rational Expressions
Reduction of rational
expressions to lowest term
7𝑎5 𝑏4
1.
21𝑎2 𝑏5
𝑎3 7𝑎2 𝑏4
=
3𝑏 7𝑎2 𝑏4
𝑎3
=
3𝑏

18𝑥 2 +9𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2
2.
9𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2
(6𝑥 −𝑦)(3𝑥+2𝑦)
=
(3𝑥 −2𝑦)(3𝑥+2𝑦)
6𝑥−𝑦
=
3𝑥−2𝑦
Addition and subtraction of rational
expressions
5 4 5 4
 - = -
𝑥 2 −4 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+4 (𝑥+2)(𝑥 −2) (𝑥+2)2

LCD = (𝑥 + 2)2 𝑥 − 2

5(𝑥+2) 4(𝑥 −2) 5 𝑥+2 −4(𝑥 −2)

= - =
(𝑥+2)2 𝑥 −2 (𝑥+2)2 𝑥 −2 (𝑥+2)2 𝑥 −2

5𝑥+10 −4𝑥+8
=
(𝑥+2)2 𝑥 −2
𝑥+18
=
(𝑥+2)2 𝑥 −2
Products of rational expressions
 Find each of the following products in
lowest terms.
5𝑡 4 5
1. ∙ =
8 3𝑡 2 6𝑡

𝑥 −5 4𝑥 2 +12𝑥+9
2. ∙ 2
4𝑥 2 −9 2𝑥 −11𝑥+5
𝑥 −5 (2𝑥+3)(2𝑥+3)
= ∙
(2𝑥+3)(2𝑥 −3) (2𝑥 −1)(𝑥− 5)
(2𝑥+3)
=
(2𝑥 −3)(2𝑥 −1)
 Multiplying and Dividing Rational
Expressions
 Perform the indicated operations and simplify
the result. Leave your answer in factored form.

𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1 4𝑥 2 +4 𝑥−1 2 4(𝑥 2 +1)

a) 3 ∙ 2 = ∙
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥−2 𝑥(𝑥 2 +1) 𝑥+2 𝑥−1
𝑥−1 2 4(𝑥 2 +1)
= ∙
𝑥(𝑥 2 +1) 𝑥+2 𝑥−1
4 𝑥−1
=
𝑥 𝑥+2
𝑥 ≠ −2, 0,1
Quotients of rational expressions
4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 12𝑦 2
 Find the quotient of ÷
𝑥𝑦+ 𝑦 2 𝑥𝑦+ 𝑥 2
2𝑥 −3𝑦 2𝑥+3𝑦 𝑥 𝑦+𝑥
= ∙
𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 2𝑥 −3𝑦 3𝑥+4𝑦
𝑥 2𝑥 −3𝑦 2𝑥+3𝑦 𝑦+𝑥
=
𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 2𝑥 −3𝑦 3𝑥+4𝑦

𝑥 2𝑥+3𝑦 2𝑥 2 +3𝑥𝑦
= = (Answer)
𝑦 3𝑥+4𝑦 4𝑦 2 +3𝑥𝑦
Complex fractions
2
1− a
 Evaluate in its simplest term, 1
𝑎 −1 − a −1
LDC1 = a
LLDC2 = a – 1
𝑎 2 𝑎 −2
−
𝑎 𝑎
= 𝑎(𝑎−1) 1(𝑎−1) 1 = 𝑎
𝑎2 −𝑎 −𝑎+1 −1
𝑎 −1
− 𝑎 −1
− 𝑎 −1 𝑎 −1
𝑎 −2
𝑎 −2 𝑎 −1
= 𝑎
𝑎2 −2𝑎
= ∙
𝑎 𝑎(𝑎 −2)
𝑎 −1
𝑎 −1
= (Answer)
𝑎2
The Binomial Theorem
 The Binomial Theorem:

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−3

𝑎+𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 b + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑏3 +
1 1 2 1 2 3
… … 𝑏𝑛
Example
 Expand (2x – y)5

(a + b)n a = 2x, b = -y

= (2x)5 + 5 (2x)5 – 1(-y) + 5 5 - 1(2x)5 – 2(-y)2 + 5 5 – 1 5 – 2 (2x)5 – 3

1 1 2 1 2 3

(-y)3 + 5 5–1 5 -2 5 - 3 (2x)5 – 4(-y)4 + 5 5 - 1 5 – 2 5 – 3 5 – 4

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5

+ (2x)5 – 5(-y)5

=32x5 – 80x4y + 80x3y2 – 40x2y3 + 10xy4 – y5

Complex number
Complex Number

 The complex numbers are the field of numbers of

the form , where and are real numbers and i is
the imaginary unit equal to the square root of , .
When a single letter is used to denote a complex
number, it is sometimes called an "affix.“
 A complex number is a number that can be
expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are
real numbers, and i is a solution of the equation
x² = −1. Because no real number satisfies this
equation, i is called an imaginary number
The Principal Square Root of a
Negative Number:
 If p is a positive number, then the principal
square root of –p, denoted by −𝑝 , is defined by
−𝑝 = 𝑖 𝑝
Example:
−5 = 𝑖 5 the square roots of -5 are i 5 and −𝑖 5
−16 = 𝑖 16 = 4𝑖, the square roots of -16 are 4i and
− 4𝑖
Note: A complex number is said to be in standard
form when it is written as a + bi, where a and b
are real numbers
i

Example
Write the complex number in
standard form:

1. −𝟗 = 𝒊 𝟗 = 𝟑𝒊 = 𝟎 + 𝟑𝒊

2. 5 - 6 −𝟒 = 5 - 6 𝒊 𝟒
= 5 - 6(2𝒊)
= 5 – 12𝒊
= 5 + −𝟏𝟐𝒊
 The Sum, difference and Product of Two
Complex Numbers:
Example:
1. Find the sum and product of the complex numbers 5 – 4i and -2 +
6i
( 5 – 4i) + ( -2 + 6i) = 5 -2 – 4i + 6i = 3 + 2i
(5 – 4i)(-2 + 6i) = -10 + 30i + 8i – 24i2
= -10 + 38i – 24(-1)
= -10 + 38i + 24 = 14 + 38i
2. Find the Difference of the complex numbers
(5 – 4i) – (-2 +6i) = 5 – 4i + 2 – 6i = 7 – 10i
Quotient of complex numbers
 Find the quotient of the complex number
5 − 4𝑖 5 −4𝑖 −2 −6𝑖
1. =
−2 − 6𝑖 −2+6𝑖 −2 −6𝑖
−10 −30𝑖+8𝑖+24𝑖 2 −10 −22𝑖+ 24𝑖 2
= =
4 −36𝑖 2 4 −36𝑖 2

−10 −22𝑖 + 24(−1) −10 −22𝑖 −24

= =
4 −36 (−1) 4+36
−𝟑𝟒 −𝟐𝟐𝒊 𝟐 −𝟏𝟕 −𝟏𝟏𝒊
= =
𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
−𝟏𝟕 −𝟏𝟏𝒊
= (Answer)
𝟐𝟎
Additional example
2. 2 − −9 ÷ 2 + −9
2 − −9 2 −3𝑖 2 −3𝑖
= =
2+ −9 2+3𝑖 2 −3𝑖
4 −6𝑖 −6𝑖−9𝑖 2 4 −12𝑖 −9(−1)
= =
4 −9𝑖 2 4 −9(−1)
4 −12𝑖+9
=
4+9
−5 −12𝑖
= (Answer)
13
The pattern of powers, signs, 1's,
and i's is a cycle:
Simplify the following

1. Simplify i17.
i17 = i16 + 1 = i4 · 4 + 1 = i1 = i
2. Simplify i99
i99 = i96+3 = i(4×24)+3 = i3 = –i
3. Simplify i120.
i120 = i4 · 30 = i4· 30 + 0 = i0= 1
4. Simplify i64,002.
i64,002 = i64,000 + 2 = i4 · 16,000 + 2 = i2 = –1
Equations in One Variable
Equations in One Variable

 Algebraic Equation in the

variable x is a statement that the
two algebraic expressions are
equal
First Degree Equation in one
Variable (Linear Equation)
ax + b = 0, a is not zero
Applications of Linear Equation:
1. Geometric problem
2. Investment/Money problem
3. Mixture problem
4. Uniform – Motion problem
5. Work problem
6. Age problem
7.Number problems
Example of geometric problem
 If a rectangle has a length that is 3 cm less than
four times its width and its perimeter is 19 cm,
what are the dimensions?

Let w = width of the rectangle

Soln: 4w – 3 = length of the rectangle
P = 2L + 2W
4w - 3
19 = 2(4w - 3) + 2(w)
w 19 = 8w – 6 + 2w
25 = 10w
w = 5/2

Thus, w = 5/2 cm and

length is 4w – 3 = 4(5/2) – 3
L = 7 cm
Example of geometric problem

 One angle of the triangle is half the second, and

the third is 30° more than the second. Find the
angles it being known that the sum of the
interior angles of any triangle is 180°

Soln: Let: x = size of the second angle

1/2x = the first angle
x + 30° = the third angle

Working Equation: x + 1/2x + (x + 30) = 180

x = 60° the second angle

1/2x = 30° the first angle
x + 30 = 90° the third angle
 Example of investment problem
 A man invested part of $15,000 at 12 percent
and the remainder at 8 percent. If his annual
income from the two investments is $1456, how
much does he have invested at each rate?
Let x = the number of dollars invested at 12 percent
Soln: 15,000 – x = the number of dollars invested at 8 percent

No. of Dollars Invested x rate = Number of

Dollars in
Interest
12 % investment x 0.12 0.12x
8% investment 15,000 – x 0.08 0.08(15,000 – x)
Continued....
0.12x + 0.08(15,000 – x) = 1456
0.12x + 1200 – 0.08x = 1456
0.04x = 256
x = 6400

15,000 – x = 15,000 – 6400 = 8600

Thus the man has $6400 invested at 12% and $8600 at

8%
Example of Money problem
 A fruit vendor goes to market to buy fruits for resale at her
store. She spends half her money for mangoes, and one
third of what remains for bananas. She spends P150 for
other fruits and still has P200 left from the amount she
originally had. How much money did she have at the start?

Soln: Let: x = original amount she had

½ x = amount spent for mangoes
1/3(x – ½ x) = 1/6x = amount spent for bananas

Total amount spent = ½ x + 1/6 x + 150 = 2/3 x + 150

Amount remaining = P200

Working Equation: 2/3 x + 150 + 200 = x

x = P1050, the original amount

 Example of mixture problem
 A goldsmith has two alloys of gold, the first being 70 %
pure gold, and the second 60 % pure gold. How many
grams of each must be used to make 100 grams of an alloy
which will be 66 % pure gold?

Soln: Let: x = the weight in grams of 70% pure gold

100 – x = the weight in grams of 60% pure gold
% of gold No. of grams Total Alloy
70 % pure gold 0.70 x 0.70x
60 % pure gold 0.60 100 – x 0.60(100 – x)
66 % pure gold 0.66 100 0.66(100)

Working Equation: 0.70x + 0.60(100 – x) = 0.66(100)

x = 60 grams

Therefore 60 grams is needed for 70% alloy., and 40

grams for 60% alloy.
Example of uniform motion problem

 Two cars A and B start at the same time from two places
136 km apart toward each other. A travels 10 km/hr and B
8 km/hr. If B rests 1 hr on the way, in how many hours will
they meet?

Soln: Let: t = time in hrs A travels

t – 1 = actual time of travelling for B
10t = distance in km travelled by A
8(t – 1) = distance in km travelled by B

Working Equation: 10t + 8(t – 1) = 136

t = 8 hrs.
Example of uniform motion problem

 A motorboat has an average speed of 20 km/hr in still

water. It can travel upstream 5 km against a river current
in the same time it can travel downstream 7 km with the
river current. What is the speed of the current?

Soln: Let v = speed of the river current in km/hr

20 – v = speed of the motorboat upstream
20 + v = speed of the motorboat downstream

Working Equation: 5 = 7
20 – v 20 + v

v = 3 1/3 km/hr
Example of work problem
 One pipe can fill a tank alone in 6 hours; another pipe can
fill it alone in 8 hours. A drain pipe can empty the tank in
12 hours. If the tank is empty, and all the three pipes are
open, how long will it take to fill the tank?

Soln: Let: x = the number of hours needed to fill the empty tank if
all pipes are open

1 1 1 1
Working Equation: = + −
𝑥 6 8 12

x = 4.8 hours

Therefore the tank can be filled in 4.8 hours

 Example of age problem
 A boy is one third as old as his brother and 8 years
younger than his sister. The sum of their ages is 38 years.
How old is each of them?

Soln: Let: x = age of boy 3x = age of brother

x + 8 = age of sister

x + 3x + (x + 8) = 38

x = 6 years (age of boy)

3x = 18 years (age of brother)
x + 8 = 14 years (age of sister)
Quadratic Equation
Quadratic is an expression or an equation that
contains the variable squared, but not raised to a
higher power.
ax2 + bx + c = 0, a is not zero
Can be Solved By:
1. Solution by Factoring
2. Solution by Completing the Square
−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
3. Solution by Quadratic Formula x =
2𝑎
 −𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
The quantity in the above equation is known
2𝑎
as the discriminant.
The discriminant will determine the nature of the roots of the
quadratic equation.

−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
Nature of Roots:
2𝑎
0 Only one root (real and equal)
>0 Real and Unequal
<0 Imaginary and Unequal
Example (Solution by factoring)
5𝑥 2𝑥 2
1. Find the solution set of the equation 1+ =
6 3
5𝑥 2𝑥 2
1+ = 6
6 3
6 + 5x = 4x2
4x2 – 5x – 6 = 0
(4x + 3)(x – 2) = 0
4x + 3 = 0 x–2=0
4x = -3 x=2
−3
x=
4
The solution sets are -3/4 and 2
Example (Solution by factoring)
Example (solution by completing the square)
1. Find the solution set by completing the square
3x2 – 2x – 6 = 0
1
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 6 = 0
3
3𝑥 2 2𝑥 6 0
− − =
3 3 3 3
2 2𝑥
𝑥 − −2=0
3
2𝑥 𝒃 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
2
𝑥 − =2 = ∙ = =
3 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟗
𝟐𝒙 𝟏 𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − + =𝟐+
𝟑 𝟗 𝟗
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝟗
𝒙 − =
𝟑 𝟗

1 19
x- = ±
3 9
1 ± 19
x =
3
Example (solution by completing the square)
The quadratic formula: how it came to be?
 The quadratic formula is derived by completing the square
of the general formula of the quadratic equation.
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎𝑥 2 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 0
+ + =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
2 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 −𝑏 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 + =− x= ±
𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
2 𝑏𝑥 𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏 2
𝑥 + + = − +
𝑞 2𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 −𝑏 ± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x=
2𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
𝑥+ = −
2𝑎 4𝑎2 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =
2𝑎 4𝑎2
𝑏 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x+ =
2𝑎 2𝑎
 Example (solution by quadratic formula)
 Use the quadratic formula to find the solution of set of the
equation 6𝑥 2 = 10 + 11𝑥
 Sol’n: 6𝑥 2 − 11x − 10 = 0 where: a = 6; b = -11, c = -10
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x=
2𝑎
−(−11) ± −11 2 −4 6 −10
x=
2(6)
11 ± 121+240
x=
12
11 ± 361
x=
12
11 ± 19
x=
12
11+19 30 5
𝑥1 = = =
12 12 2
11 −19 −8 −2
𝑥2 = = =
12 12 3
Example
 Determine the character of the roots of the equations
a. 3x2 – 2x – 6 = 0 b. 4x2 – 12x + 9 = 0
Solution:
a. 3x2 – 2x – 6 = 0 a = 3, b = -2, c = -6

b2 - 4ac = (-2)2 - 4(3)(-6)

D = 76, the discriminant is positive, hence the roots are real
and unequal

b. 4x2 – 12x + 9 = 0 a = 4, b = -12, c = 9

b2 - 4ac = (-12)2 - 4(4)(9)

D = 0, the discriminant is zero, therefore the roots are equal
real numbers
Sum of the Roots:
−𝐵
r1 + r2 = 𝐴

Product of the Roots:

𝐶
r1 x r 2 = 𝐴

Finding the quadratic equation given its roots:

x2 – (r1 + r2)x + r1r2 = 0
Example
 Find the sum and product of roots of 4x2 + 8x – 12 = 0

r1 + r2 = -b/a = -8/4 = -2
r1r2 = c/a = -12/4 = -3

4x2 + 8x – 12 = 0 r1 + r2 = -3 + 1 = -2
4(x2 + 2x – 3) = 0 r1r2 = (-3)(1) = -3
4(x + 3)(x – 1) = 0
x1 = -3 x2 = 1
 Application of quadratic equation
in one variable
1. A park contains a flower garden, 50 m long and 30 m
wide, and a path of uniform width around it. If the area
of the path is 600 m2, what is its width?
w meters
w meters

Let: w = width of the path

(50 + 2w) m The area of the park
minus the area of the garden
50 meters

is equal to the area of the path

30 meters

(30 + 2w) m
 Continued....
Working Equation: (50 + 2w)(30 + 2w) - (50)(30) = 600

1500 + 160w + 4w2 – 1500 = 600

4w2 + 160w - 600 = 0
w2 + 40w - 150 = 0

Using quadratic formula:

−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −40 ± 402 −4(1)(−150) −40 ± 1,600+600

w= = =
2𝑎 2(1) 2
−40 ± 2,200 −40 ±46.904 6.904
w= = =
2 2 2

Because w must be a positive number, we reject the negative

root.
w = -20 + 5(4.69) = 3.45 m, thus the width of the path is 3.45 m
Other Equations in One Variable:

 Fractional Equation - involves fraction containing

the variable in the denominator
 Literal Equation - an equation in which constants
are also represented by letters
 Radical Equation - an equation involving a variable
with a fractional exponent or an equation in which a
variable appears in a radical
Fractional equation

 Solve for x:
3𝑥+4 2𝑥+5
 − =0 LCD = (6x – 5)(4x -1)
6𝑥 −5 4𝑥 −1
3𝑥+4 4𝑥 −1 − 2𝑥+5 6𝑥 −5
=0
6𝑥 −5 4𝑥 −1

12𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 16𝑥 − 4 − 12𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 30𝑥 − 25 = 0

-7x + 21 = 0
x=3
 Radical equation
Solve the equation,

2𝑥 + 5 + x = 5

Soln: 2𝑥 + 5 = 5 – x

2
2𝑥 + 5 = (5 – x)2

2x + 5 = 25 – 10x + x2

x2 – 12x + 20 = 0

(x – 10)(x – 2) = 0

x1 = 10 x2 = 2,
the solution sets are 2, 10, but by substitution, it can be found that
only 2 is the solution to the equation. 10 is therefore called the
extraneous solution to the equation
Radical equation
 Find the solution set of the equation
3 − 3𝑥 - 3𝑥 + 2 = 3
3 − 3𝑥 = 3 + 3𝑥 + 2
2 2
3 − 3𝑥 = 3 + 3𝑥 + 2 By substituting the
3 – 3x = 9 + 6 3𝑥 + 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 solution sets to the
-6 3𝑥 + 2 = 6x + 8 equation, it can be
found that both
-3 3𝑥 + 2 = 3x + 4
solution sets does
Squaring both sides
2 not satisfy the given
9 3𝑥 + 2 = (3x + 4)2 equation. Therefore
9 (3x + 2) = 9x2 + 24x + 16 the solution sets are
27x + 18 = 9x2 + 24x + 16 both extraneous.
-9x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 There is no real
9x2 – 3x – 2 = 0 solution set to the
(3x – 2)(3x + 1) = 0 equation
x1 = 2/3 x2 = -1/3
Inequalities
Inequalities

 An inequality is the result of replacing the = sign

with <, >, ≤ 𝑜𝑟 ≥ .
 For example, 3x – 2 < 7 is a linear inequality. We
call it “linear” because if the <
𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛, 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
 Inequalities involving polynomials of degree 2 or
more, like 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 > 0, are referred to as polynomial
inequalities or quadratic inequalities if the degree
is exactly 2.
 Inequalities involving rational expressions are
called rational inequalities. Some often used
inequalities also involve absolute value expressions.
Inequalities

 Linear Inequalities
 Quadratic Inequalities
 Rational Inequalities
 Inequalities involving Absolute Value
Example (linear inequalities)

 Find the solution set of the inequality

3x – 8 < 7

3x – 8 = 7
3x = 15
-5 0 5
x=5
x<5

The solution set is the interval (-∞, 5)

Example (linear inequalities)
 Find the solution set of the inequality
𝑥 −7
4
≤ x

multiply both sides of the equation by 4

𝑥
−7 ≤𝑥 4
4

x - 7 ≤ 4x
-3x ≤ 7 -7/3 0 5
x ≥ -7/3

The solution set is the interval [-7/3, +∞)

Additional examples
 Find the solution set of
3 < 4x + 7 ≤ 15

-1 0 2
Solve each of the inequalities separately,

3 < 4x + 7 4x + 7 ≤ 15
-4 < 4x 4x ≤ 8
-1 < x x≤2

A value of x will be a solution of the given inequality if and only if -1 < x

and x ≤ 2. Therefore the solution set is the interval (-1, 2]
Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions
 Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions:
If a and b are any positive numbers, and x and y are any real
numbers, then
1. 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦
𝑎𝑥
2. = 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦
𝑎𝑦

3. 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑎 𝑥𝑦
4. 𝑎𝑏 𝑥
= 𝑎𝑥𝑏𝑦
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑥
5. =
𝑏 𝑏𝑦

Example:
Simplify by applying laws of exponents:
a. 2√3. 2√12 = 2√3 . 22√3 b. (7√5 )√20 = 7√5. √20
= 2√3 + 2√3 = 23√3 = 7√100 = 710
 Logarithms:

- the logarithm of a number or variable x to base b, logbx, is the

exponent of b needed to give x

Log216 = 4 may be written sa 24 = 16

Common Logarithm or Briggsian logarithm – logarithm to
the base 10
Natural Logarithm – logarithm to the base e which is
approximately 2.7182
y = lnx if and only if x = ey
If log x = a; then x is called the antilogarithm of a
Logarithms
Properties of Logarithms:
(Applies also to ln)
1. log (xy) = log x + log y
2. log (x/y) = log x – log y
3. log xn = nlogx
4. log bx = log x/log b
5.log ax = log bx/log ba
6. log aa = 1
example
 Find the solution set of the equation
5 3x – 1 = 0.08

log 5 3x – 1 = log 0.08

(3x – 1)log 5 = log 0.08
3x log 5 – log 5 = log 0.08
3x log 5 = log 0.08 + log 5
x = log 0.08 + log 5
3 log 5
x = -0.1897
example
 Find the solution set of the equation
log 3x + log 3(2x – 3) = 3
log 3 x(2x – 3) = 3
2x2 – 3x = 33
2x2 – 3x – 27 = 0
(x + 3)(2x – 9) = 0
x = -3 x = 9/2

We reject the negative root since both logarithms are

not defined. Therefore the solution set is 9/2
Variations
Variations
 Variation problems are problems in algebra which
show the relationship between the variables in
terms of expressions such as “directly proportional”
or “inversely proportional” or simply “proportional”.
“k” is called constant of proportionality.
 Types of Variations:
1. Direct Linear Variation
y varies directly as x, y is proportional to x
y/x = k, y = xk
2. Direct Square Variation
y/x2 = k
3. Inverse Variation
y = k/x
4. Joint Variation/Combined Variation
z varies jointly with x and y, z/xy = k
z is directly proportional to x2 and inversely
proportional to y, zy/x2 = k
 Example (combined variation)
 The time required for an elevator to lift a
weight varies directly with the weight and
the distance through which it is to be lifted
and inversely as the power of the motor. If it
takes 30 seconds for a 10 hp motor to lift 100
lbs through 50 ft., what size of the motor is
required to lift 800 lbs in 40 seconds through
40 ft.?

Mechanical Engineering Board October 1992

continued
t = k WS
p

When t = 30, W = 100, and S = 50 and P = 10

30 = k (100)(50)
10

k = 0.06

When t = 40, W = 800 and S = 40

40 = (0.06) (800)(40)
P

P = 48 hp
Systems of Equations in Two or
more variables
Systems of Linear Equations in
Two or more variables
1. First Degree in Equation in Two variables and Linear
Systems of Equations
ax + by + c = 0 Can be solved by:
Method of Elimination
Method of Substitution

2. Systems of First Degree Equations in Three Variables

ax + by +cz + d = 0 Can be solved by:
Method of Elimination
and Substitution
Determinants
For a system of linear equations in
two variables, three possibilities arise:
 The intersection of the two solution sets
contains exactly one ordered pair. The graph
intersects exactly at one point. The
equations are said to be consistent and
independent.
 The intersection of the two solution sets is the
empty set. The graphs are distinct parallel
lines. The equations are said to be
inconsistent.
 The solution sets of the two equations are equal.
The graphs are the same line. The equations
are said to be dependent.
Example (method of elimination)
 Find the solution set of the system of equations
2x + y = 3 eq.1
5x + 3y = 10 eq.2

-3 (2x + y = 3) multiply eq. 1 by -3

-6x - 3y = -9 eq. 3
Eliminate y; adding eq. 3 and eq. 2 and solve for x
-6x – 3y = -9
5x + 3y = 10
-x = 1, x = -1

Substitute the value of x to original equation

2x + y = 3
2(-1) + y = 3
y=5
Therefore the solution set is -1, and 5
Example (method of substitution)
 From the previous example find the solution set
using method of substitution
2x + y = 3 1
5x + 3y = 10 2

y = 3 – 2x 3

Substitute eqn. 3 to eqn. 2

5x + 3(3 – 2x) = 10
5x + 9 – 6x = 10
-x = 1
x = -1
Substitute value of x to 1
2(-1) + y = 3
y=5 we obtain the same answer in
either method
 Example (Systems in three variables)
Find the solution set of the system
x – y – 4z = 3 eq.1
2x – 3y + 2z = 0 eq.2
2x – y + 2z = 2 eq.3

Using method of substitution,

x = y + 4z + 3 eq.4
2x – 3y + 2z = 0
2x – y + 2z = 2
Substituting the value of eq.4 to in to other to (eq.2 & eq. 4),
2(y + 4z + 3) – 3y + 2z = 0
2y + 8z +6 – 3y + 2z = 0
-y + 10z = -6
y = 10z + 6 eq.5
2(y + 4z + 3) – y + 2z = 2
2y + 8z + 6 –y + 2z = 2
y + 10z = -4
y = -10z – 4 eq. 6
Solving the equation for y,

x = y + 4z + 3 eq. 4
y = 10z + 6 eq. 5
y = - 10z - 4 eq.6

Equating eq.5 and eq.6 and solve for z

10z + 6 = -10z – 4
10z +10z = -4 - 6
20z = -10
−10 −1
z= =
20 2
Solve for y using eq.4
y = 10z + 6
−1
y = 10 +6
2
y=-5+6=1
Substitute value of z and y to eq. 4, solve for x
x = 2, y = 1, z = -1/2
x = y + 4z + 3
−1
x=1+4 + 3 = 1 -2 + 3
2
z=2
Partial fractions
Partial fractions

 It is sometimes necessary to express a single

rational expression as a sum of two or more
simpler quotients called partial fractions
example
 Decompose the fraction 7x -1 into partial fractions
x2 – x – 6
7𝑥 −1 7𝑥 −1
=
𝑥 2 −𝑥 −6 𝑥+2 𝑥−3
7𝑥 −1 𝐴 𝐵
= + 1
𝑥+2 𝑥−3 𝑥+2 𝑥−3

multiply the above eqn. By the LCD, that is (x + 2)(x – 3)

7x – 1 = A(x – 3) + B(x + 2) 2

setting every distinct denominator to zero,

x + 2 = -2 , x–3=3 Therefore 7x – 1 is
substitute -2, and 3 to eqn. 2, x2 – x – 6 equal
when x = -2 3 4
to +
7(-2) – 1 = A(-2 – 3) + B(-2 + 2) 𝑥+2 𝑥−3
A = 3
when x = 3
7(3) – 1 = A(3 – 3) + B(3 + 2)
B = 4
Sequence, series, progressions
Sequence, series, progression
 Sequence
Is a set or collection of numbers arranged in an orderly manner
such that the preceding and the following numbers are
completely specified.
Example: 1,3,5,7,9,……..
1, 4, 9, 16, 25…..
 Series
A series is a sum of the terms in a sequence. If there are n terms
in the sequence and we evaluate the sum then we often write Sn
for the result, so that
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ . . 𝑢𝑛

 Progression
Is simply another term for sequence
Types of Progressions:
1. Arithmetic Progression – a series of numbers having a
common difference
L = a + (n – 1)d where: a = first term
𝑛 𝑎+𝐿
S= d = common difference
2
𝑛 2𝑎+ 𝑛−1 𝑑
S= n = no. of terms
2
𝑛
S= 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 L = the nth term
2
S = sum
a1 = 1st term
an = last term (nth term)

Arithmetic Means – terms between any two given terms in

an arithmetic sequence
Types of Progressions:
2. Geometric Progression - a series of numbers
having a common ratio
𝐿 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 where: a = first term
1 − 𝑟𝑛
𝑆=𝑎 r = common ratio
1 −𝑟

n = no. of terms
L = the nth term
S = sum
3. Harmonic Progression – a series of numbers whose
reciprocals form arithmetic Progression.
 Types of Progressions:
4. Infinite Geometric Progression – the number of
terms (n) is extremely large or infinity.

If r>1, the sum of all terms is infinite

If r<1, the sum of all terms is:

𝑎1
𝑆= where: a1 = 1st term
1−𝑟
r = common ratio
Example (Arithmetic)
 Find the thirtieth element of the arithmetic
sequence for which the first element is 5 and the
second element is 9

Let: L30 = 30th element of the arithmetic sequence

5, 9........L30
d = 9 – 5 = 4, a1 = 5, N = 30

L30 = a1 + (n – 1)d
= 5 + (30 – 1)(4)
L30 = 121
Example (arithmetic)
 If the twelfth element of an arithmetic sequence is -21
and the twenty fifth element is 18, what is the fourth
element?

18 = a1 + 24d
N = 25 and L25 = 18
-21 = a1 + 11d
39 = 13d
18 = a1 + (25 – 1) d
18 = a1 + 24d 1
d=3
N = 12 and L12 = -21
Using eqn. 1, a1 = -54
-21 = a1 + (12 – 1)d
N = 4, a1 = -54 and d = 3
-21 = a1 + 11d 2
L4 = -54 + (4- 1)(3)

L4 = -45
Example (Arithmetic)
 Insert three arithmetic means between 11 and 14

If c1, c2, and c3 are three arithmetic means, then

11, c1, c2, c3, 14

N = 5, L5 = a1 + (5 – 1)d

Because a1 = 11 and L5 = 14
14 = 11 + 4d
d = ¾, thus
c1 = 11 + ¾ c2 = 11 ¾ + ¾ c3 = 12 ½ + 3/4
= 11 ¾ = 12 ½ = 13 ¼
Example (arithmetic)
 A stack of bricks has 61 bricks in the bottom layer, 58 bricks in
the second layer, 55 bricks in the third layer, and so on until
there are 10 bricks in the last layer. How many bricks are there
all together?
a1 = 61, a2 = 58, a3 = 55, an = 10

𝑛 2𝑎1 + 𝑛−1 𝑑
By inspection, d = -3 𝑆=
2

Ln = a1 + (n – 1)d
18 2 16 + 18 −1 −3
10 = 61 + (n – 1)(-3) S =
2
10 = 61 – 3n + 3
n = 18 S = 639
Example (Geometric )
 The fourth term of a G.P. is 216 and the 6th term is 1944.
Find the 8th term.

L4 = 216, L6 = 1944

L4 = a1r3 Substitute r in 1:
216 = a1r3 1 216 = a1(3)3
a1 = 8
L6 = a1r5 L8 = a1r7
1944 = a1r5 2 L8 = 8(3)7

L8 = 17496
a1r5 = 1944
a1r3 216

r2 = 9
r=3
Example (Harmonic )
 Find the fourth term of the progression ½, 0.2, 0.125,...

h1 = ½ L1 = 2
h2 = 0.2 = 1/5 L2 = 5
h3 = 0.125 = 1/8 L3 = 8

By inspection, d = 3
L4 = a1 + 3d
L4 = 2 + 3(3)
L4 = 11

Thus, h4 = 1 = 1
a4 11
Permutation, combination,
probability
 Permutation
o Is defined as an ordered arrangement of a finite
number of elements, either all of the available n
elements or a part of them without repetitions.
The number of permutations of n different things taken r
at a time is:
𝑛!
nPr = 𝑛−𝑟 !
,

nPr = n(n – 1)(n – 2)...(n – r + 1)

If taken all at once;
nPn = n!
Combination
o Is an arrangement of the selection of objects
regardless of the order

The number of combinations of n different things

taken r at a time is
𝑛!
nCr = 𝑛−𝑟 !𝑟!

If taken at all once

nCr = 1
 Probability
o The probability of an event E, is the ratio of
the number of outcomes to the total number of
possible outcomes.

𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝐸 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
Example (permutation)

 A bus has seven vacant seats. If three additional

passengers enter the bus, in how many different
ways can they be seated?

nPr = n(n – 1)(n – 2)....(n – r + 1)

7P3 = 7(7 – 1)(7 – 2)(7 – 3 + 1)

= 210
Example (permutation)

 How many permutations are there if the letters

PNRCSE are taken six at a time?

Taken at a time,

nPn = n!
6P6 = 6!
= 720

Electrical Engineering Board, June 1990

Example (permutation)

 There are four balls of four different colors. Two balls

are taken at a time and arranged in a definite order.
For example, if a white and a red balls are taken, one
definite arrangement is white first, red second, and
another arrangement is red first, white second. How
many such arrangements are possible?

nPr = n!/(n – r)!

EE Board October 1997
4P2 = 4!/(4 – 2)!

= 12 ways
Example (combination)

 There are four balls of different colors. Two balls

at a time are taken and arranged anyway. How
many such combinations are possible?

nCr = n!/(n – r)!r!

4C2 = 4!/(4 – 2)!(2)!

= 6 ways

EE Board October 1997

Example (combination)
 In how many ways can a committee of three consisting of
two aeronautical engineers and one mechanical engineer
can be formed from four aeronautical engineers and three
mechanical engineers?

4C 2 . 3C 1

4C 2 = 4! = 6
(4 – 2)!(2)!

3C 1 = 3! = 3
(3 – 1)!(1)!

6 x 3 = 18 ways
Example (probability)

 There are 50 tickets in a lottery in which there is a

first and second prize. What is the probability of a
man drawing a prize if he owns 5 tickets?

P = no. of outcomes/total outcomes

P = 2/50 = 1/25

the probability for the man to win a prize is:

P = 5(1/25) EE Board April 1991

P = 0.20 or 20 %
Example (probability)
 Determine the probability of drawing either a king or a
diamond in a single draw from a pack of 52 playing cards.

Pk = probability of drawing a king

PD = probability of drawing a diamond
Pk and D = probability of drawing a king and at the same
time a diamond

Pk or D = Pk + PD - Pk and D

P = no. of outcomes/total outcomes

Pk or D = 4 + 13 - 1 = 16
52 52 52 52

Pk or D = 4/13