Practical

Research 2
 “In much of society, research means to
investigate something you do not know or
understand.” -Neil Armstrong
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
 Your goal in conducting Quantitative
research study is to determine the
relationship between one thing(an
independent variable) and another (a
dependent variable) within a population.

** IV, Independent Variable, Predictor

variable
** DV, Dependetn Variable, Outcome
Variable
 Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic
and an objective stance. Quantitative research
focuses on numbers and unchanging data and
detailed, convergent reasoning rather than
divergent reasoning. (i.e., the generation of a
variety of ideas about a research problem in
spontaneous, free-flowing manner).
Here are the importance of
quantitative research:
1. More reliable and objective
2. Can use statistics to generalise a
finding
3. Often reduces and restructure a
complex problem to a limited number
of variables
4. Looks at relationships between
variables and can establish cause and
effect in highly controlled
circumstances.
5. Test theories or hypotheses
6. Assumes sample is representative of
the population.
Characteristics:
• The data is usually gathered using structured
research instruments.
• The results are based on larger sample sizes that
are representative of the population.
• The research study can usually replicated or
repeated, given its high reliability.
• Researcher has a clearly defined research
question to which objective answers are sought.
 Characteristics:
• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data
is collected.
• Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often
arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual
forms.
• Projects can be used to generalize concepts more widely,
future results, or investigate causal relationships.
• Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or
computer software, to collect numerical data.
The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count
them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Things to keep in mind when reporting the
result of a study using quantitative method

1. Explain the data collected and their statistical

treatment as well as all relevant results in
relation to the research problem you are
investigating

2. Report unanticipated events that occurred

during your data collection.

3. Explain the data techniques you used to clean

your data set.
4. Choose a minimally sufficient statistical
procedure; provide a rationale for its use and
a reference for it. Specify any computer
programs used.
5. Describe assumptions for each procedure
and the steps you took to ensure that they
were not violated.
6. When using inferential statistics, provide the
descriptive statistics, confidence intervals,
and sample sizes for each variable as well as
the value of test statistic, its direction, the
degree of freedom, and the significance level
7. Avoid inferring causality, particularly in
non randomized designs or without
further experimentation.
8. Used tables to provide exact values:
use figures to convey global effects.
Keep figures small in size; include
graphic representations of confidence
intervals whenever possible.
9. Always tell the reader what to look for
in tables in figures.
 Quantitative method

Quantitative data are pieces of information

that can be counted and which are usually gathered
by surveys from a large numbers of respondents
randomly selected for inclusion.
Secondary data such as census data,
government statistic, health system metrics etc. are
often included in quantitative research. Quantitative
data is analysed using statistical methods.
Quantitative approaches are best used to
answer what, when, and who questions and are
not well suited to how and why questions.
 Quantitative method
Strengths:
1. Findings can be generalised if selection process is well
designed and sample is representative of study
population.
2. Relatively easy to analyse
3. Data can be very consistent, precise and reliable

Limitations:

1. Related secondary data is sometimes not available or

accessing available data is difficulty/ impossible
2. Difficult to understand context of phenomenon
3. Data may not be robust enough to explain complex
issues
Kinds of Quantitative Research

1. Descriptive Research Design – seeks to describe the

current status of an identified variable. These research
projects are designed to provide systematic information
about a phenomenon. The researcher does not usually
begin with hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after
collecting data. The analysis and synthesis of the data
provide the test of the hypothesis. Systematic collection of
information requires careful selection of units studied and
careful measurement of each variable.

- A description of how second-grade students spend their

time during summer vacation.
- A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers
- A description of the attitudes of scientist about global
warming
- A description of how parents feel about the twelve month
school year
2. Correlational Research Design- attempts to determine the extent of a
relationship between two or more variables, using statistical data.
In this type of design, relationship among a number of facts are sought and
interpreted This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data,
but it does not go so far in its analysis to prove causes for these observe
patterns. Cause and effect is not is not the basis of this type of
observational research. The data, relationship and the distributions of
variables are studied only. Variables are not manipulated; they are only
identified and are studied as they occur in a natural setting.
*Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive
research, and not as its own type of research, as no variables are
manipulated in the study.

- The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

- The relationship between diet and anxiety
- The relationship between aptitude test and success in algebra courses
- The covariance of smoking and lung cancer
3. Causal-Comparative/ Quasi- Experimental
Research- attempts to establish cause and effect
relationships among variable. Independent variable is
identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and
effect of the IV on the DV are measured.

- The effect of taking multivitamins on a students school

absenteeism
- The effect of gender on algebra achievement
- The effect of part time employment on the
achievement of high school students.
- The effect of age on lung capacity
4. Experimental Research Design- often called true
experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish cause-
effect relationship among a group of variable that make up a
study. IV are manipulated to determine the effect on the DV.

- The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer

- The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school
- A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs
traditional instruction on computational skills
- The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a
traditional lecture approach on students achivement.
 Types of Variables and their Uses

• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(IV)
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV)
• SAMPLE VARIABLES
• EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE

Independent Variable are those that are suspected of

being the cause in a causal relationship. Usually called
predictor or criterion variable rather than IV.
Two main sort of IV
1. Active IV are interventions or conditions that are being
applied to the participants. A special tutorial for the
third graders, a new therapy for client, or a new
training program tested in employees.
2. Attribute IV are intrinsic characteristics of the
participant what are suspected of causing a result. For
example, if you are examining whether gender-which
is intrinsic to the other participants- results in higher or
lower scores on some skill, gender is an attribute IV.
 Types of Variables and their Uses

• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(IV)
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV)
• SAMPLE VARIABLES
• EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE

Dependent Variable are those that are influenced by the IV.

- They are outcomes or results of the influence of the IV
- Answer the question: What do I observe happening when I apply the
intervention?
- Receives the intervention
- They are usually called outcome variable

Sample Variable – when there is no measure of characteristic of the

participants, the characteristic is called a “sample characteristic.” When
the characteristic must be measured it is called sample variable
 Types of Variables and their Uses

• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(IV)
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV)
• SAMPLE VARIABLES
• EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE

Extraneous Variable–are not interest to the study but may

influence the dependent variable. These are variables that
can cause the effect we are looking for if they are not
controlled for, resulting in a false finding that the IV is
effective when it is not. In a study of changes in skill levels in
a group of workers after a training program, if the follow up
measure is taken relatively late after the training, the simple
effect of practicing the skill might explain improved scores,
and the training might be mistakenly thought to be successful
when it was not
 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Qualitative Quantitative
Objective To gain an understanding of To quantify data and
underlying reasons and generalize results
/ Purpose motivations from a sample to the
population of interest
To provide insights into the To measure the
setting of a problem, incidence of various
generating ideas and/ or views and opinions in
hypothesis for later a chosen sample
quantitative research
To uncover prevalent trends Sometimes followed
in thought and opinion by qualitative
research which is
used to explore some
findings further
 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Qualitative Quantitative
Usually a small number of Usually a large
Sample non-representative cases. number of cases
Respondents selected to fulfil representing the
a given quota population of
interest. Randomly
selected respondents.

Data Unstructured or semi- Structured techniques

structured techniques e.g. such as online
Collection individual depth interviews or questionnaires on-
group discussion street or telephone
interviews
 Qualitative Quantitative
Data Non-Statistical Statistical data is
usually in the form of
Analysis tabulations (tabs).
Findings are
conclusive and usually
descriptive in nature

Outcome Exploratory and/or Use to recommend a

investigative. Findings are not final course of action
conclusive and cannot be
used to make generalizations
about the population of
interest. Develop an initial
understanding and sound
base for further decision
making.
ATTITUDE IS NEEDED

Knowledge
and skills

Attitude

Only 10% of any iceberg is visible. The remaining 90% is below sea level.
“Research work requires discipline,
efficiency, and a fair amount of
flexibility.”
-Carmen Lim,Research Manager of McCann Erickson International
Elements of a Basic
Research
I. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Statement of the Problem/Objectives
Significance of the Study
Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
Definition of Terms
Scope and Limitations

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Site
Unit of Analysis/ Respondents
Research Design and Data Collection
Research Instrument
Data Analysis
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
References
 Research
Conceptualization
What is a research problem?
RESEARCH PROBLEM

A good research problem posses four essential characteristics:

 FEASIBLE-can be investigated without an undue amount of

4Ms (Manpower, Materials, Money and Moment)
 CLEAR-most people would agree as to what the key words
in the research problem mean
 SIGNIFICANT- generate new knowledge
 ETHICAL – ethics in research
 Problem Interest

Focus on the areas you are interested

 SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS

Theories Publications Observations

Things to remember when defining a
research problem (David,2002):

1. REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

and previous studies.
2. Examine current available
data/statistics.
3. Seek educated opinions.
4. Determine probable reasons for the
existence of the problem.
Sample
 Instructional Techniques for
Culturally Diverse Classrooms
Workshop 1
Write 3 topics that you want to
pursue.
 Title
 Introduces the research to the reader.

 Reflect the main purpose and gives the reader the

idea on what the researcher proposes to do.

 The goal in making the title is to describe the

coverage of the research and delineates its scope.
FEATURES OF A GOOD TITLE:
 Short, easy to remember, and can
easily be indexed and retrieved.

 Clearly embody the focus of the

research and is supported by the
stated objectives and expected
outputs.

 Include in the title the common and

scientific names (plants & animals).
Bridging Culture and Education: LEARNING STYLE AND COPING
MECHANISMS OF THE MANGYAN STUDENTS IN THE
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT, OMSC-MURTHA
Workshop 2

Choose 1 topic = title

INTRODUCTION
• describe the existing and
prevailing problem situation
based on his/her experience .

• give strong justification for

selecting such research
problem in his/her capacity as a
researcher.
• main function is to
capture the readers’
interest (PCARRD,2006) .

• link and relate the

background of the study to
the proposed research
problem.
 IN WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

The first paragraph provides a reader a mental warm-up. It

should introduce the study and justify the problem.

The second paragraph carries the bulk of the introduction. It is

simply tells the scope and coverage of the study.

The third paragraph is a sort of a closing portion that is

intriguing and challenging the readers to become interested in
knowing the results of the study.

This is a 2-3 page discussion.

Workshop 3
Make the introduction of your study
(Please, cite the source)
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVE
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM OBJECTIVES
In question form which requires a definite In declarative form= neatly fit into the
answer; not answerable by either yes, no, problem statement
when and where
Include all independent and moderate Set the stage for showing how one
variables intends to solve or contribute to the
solution of a problem (Librero, 2009)
Should not duplicate or overlap the sub- Should be attainable under
problems (mutually exclusive dimensions) reasonable conditions

Arranged in logical order Arrange in approximate order of their

from factual to analytical order importance or potential
NO PROBLEM/OBJECTIVE=NO RESEARCH
State what you expect to accomplish

 The words survey, examine, quantify,

and investigate tell what the researcher
intends to do

 The words evaluate, compare, characterize, determine, or recommend

tell what the researcher will do with the data to come up with conclusions
and recommendations

Objectives like “To solve the social problems of the Philippines”

or “To evaluate the mental pressure of the BS Education
students” are too presumptuous and should be narrowed down to
attainable objectives under reasonable conditions.
OBJECTIVES
SMARTER Guide
SPECIFIC
MEASURABLE
ATTAINABLE
RELEVANT
TIMEBOUND
EXCITING
REWARDING 47
Workshop 4
Make at least three SOP/objectives
based on chosen your topic…
 HYPOTHESIS
It is an educated conjectural
(speculative) statement between two or
more variables. It is always in declarative
form and it relates variables (Librero,
2009).

It is a suggested answer to the problem(Ariola, 2006).

It is a shrewd guess that is formulated and presumably adapted to

explain observed facts or conditions (Leedy, 1993).
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS(Librero,2009)

1.Null hypothesis is a non-directional

statement of condition between two variables.
“There is no difference between scores obtained
by the respondents who viewed the sound slide
set and the scores of the respondents who did not
view it.”

2. Alternative hypothesis states the relationship

between two or more variables that the
research predicts will emerge.
GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
1. In experimental investigation, comparative and
correlation studies, hypothesis should be
expressed.

2. In descriptive and historical investigation,

hypothesis are seldom expressed if not entirely
absent.

3. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form

because the null hypothesis is the one being
tested.

4. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific

questions upon which they are based.
Sample 1
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPOSURE TO MASS MEDIA AND
SMOKING HABITS AMONG YOUNG ADULT

Hypothesis

There is no relationship between the extent of mass media exposure and

smoking habits among young adult.

THE EFFECT OF CURFEW ON THE ATTITUDE OF FRESHMEN STUDENTS

TOWARDS THEIR STUDIES

Hypothesis

Curfew has no effect on the attitude of freshmen students towards their studies.
Workshop 5
State the hypothesis of your
study…
A variable is a concept that stands for a
variation within a class of objects or
persons (Fraenkel and Wallen,1996).

It is a characteristics or property that can

take different values and attributes
(Schutt,1999).

Variables are things that we measure,

control, or manipulate in research
(StatSoft, 2005).
 QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Take on alpha-numeric possible Take on numeric possible values
values to denote codes with defined measures of
magnitude
Takes on non-quantifiable Takes on quantifiable values; yield
characteristics; yields categorical numerical responses representing
or qualitative responses. an amount, quantity or magnitude.
Examples: Sex (Male, Female); Examples: age, number of tillers,
breed, variety, grief, stress etc. temperature in degrees, etc.
 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
These are the stimulus variables, These variables depend upon
which are chosen by the researcher another variable for their values.
to determine its relationship to an
observed phenomenon.
It is the presumed cause. It is the presumed effect.
Experimental variable=factor that is Result that occurs when
manipulated something is manipulated
Ex. Age, sex, educational background Ex. Academic performance
 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Illustration:

Aray!!!

When the cave man is pinched Extent of his reaction

(IV)=cause (DV)=effect
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPOSURE TO MASS
MEDIA AND SMOKING HABITS AMONG YOUNG ADULT

Exposure to mass media = IV Smoking habits= DV

 FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSEHOLD
DECISION MAKING PARTICIPATION OF
MARRIED PROFESSIONALS

Factors (Age, Education,& Income)= IV Participation in Decision Making = DV

THE EFFECT OF CURFEW ON THE ATTITUDE
OF FRESHMEN STUDENTS TOWARDS
THEIR STUDIES

Exposure to curfew = IV Attitude towards their studies = DV

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework presents
a theory that explains why a
problem under study exists
(Mercado,1994).

It serves as a basis for conducting

research (Khann,1999).
Sample 1:
THE EFFECT OF CURFEW ON THE ATTITUDE OF STUDENTS
TOWARDS THEIR STUDIES AND THEIR ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE

Theoretical framework (excerpt only)

People value their sense of freedom and like to protect an

image of efficacy (Baer,et.al.,10980). When social pressure
threatens their sense of freedom, they tend to rebel. According to the
theory of psychological reactance, people act to defend their
freedom. Experiments have shown that attempts to restrict a
person’s freedom often results in a reactive “boomerang effect.”
Sample 2:
FAMILIARITY OF USE AND UTILIZATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AMONG
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ENROLLED IN THE MADEVED
PROGRAM OF OMNC, SAN JOSE, OCCIDENTAL MINDORO

Victoria V. Ungria and Mary Yole Apple M. Declaro

Theoretical framework (excerpt only)

The use of instructional technology is also anchored in the Diffusion
Theory, which is inherently an innovation-based discipline. Many of the products
produced by instructional technologists represent radical innovations in the form,
organization, sequence, and delivery of instruction. An instructional technologist
who understands the innovation process and theories of innovation diffusion will
be more fully prepared to work effectively with clients and potential adopters
(Schiffman, 1991).
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
It is the researcher’s own position on the
problem and gives direction to the study.
It may be an adaptation of a model used in
a previous study, with modifications to suit
the inquiry.
Aside from showing the direction of the
study, the researcher can be able to show
the relationships of the different constructs
that he wants to investigate (Khann,1999).
FORMS (Ariola,2009):
1. Semi subsystem- Input, process/throughput, and
output approach

Figure1. The conceptual framework.

Not all research studies need a theoretical
framework, but relational and causal studies do.

Studies which do not intend to examine

relationship between or among variables or the
effect of one variable on another do not require a
theoretical framework (David,2002).
Workshop 6
Make a conceptual framework and identify
the IV and DV …
Workshop 7

State the significance of your

study…
 KEY TERMS TO DEFINE IN A RESEARCH STUDY
(Fraenkel &Wallen, 2000)

Terms necessary to ensure that the research question is

focused
Terms that are technical
Terms that have multiple meanings
Terms that are essential to understanding what the study is
(conceptual framework)
Terms to provide precision in specification for instruments to be
developed or located.
 Bridging Culture and Education: LEARNING STYLE AND COPING
MECHANISMS OF THE MANGYAN STUDENTS IN THE
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT, OMSC-MURTHA

Mary Yole Apple M. Declaro

Definitions of terms:

For a clear comprehension, the following terms that have unique and special meanings are
conceptually and operationally define:

Culture. It refers to set of basic assumptions, shared solutions to universal problems of external
adaptation and internal integration which had evolved over time and were handed down to the
younger generation.

Learning styles. It refers to a particular learning approach used by an individual; the preferred
way to learn and the way a person learn best at home and in school.

Rituals. It is a system of ceremonies of the Mangyan to give respect to their ancestors and
deities.
Workshop 9
Identify the variables to be define
based on the conceptual
framework
 Review of Related
Literature & Studies
 What is a Literature Review?
• A “lit review” done early in the research
process is the review of the research literature
related to the problem or question posed?
• Once the problem or question has been
identified, information is needed about the
problem so that it can be placed in the proper
context and the research can proceed…
 Sources of Information
 Studies published in books, journals, periodicals,
technical reports, and academic theses and
dissertations available either in print or online through
the library’s electronic sources.

 Note: one distinction made between references is

whether they are primary or secondary sources.
A primary source is a report, book, article written
by the person who conducted the research.
Secondary sources are written by someone at least
one step removed from the research.
 Assembling and Summarizing
Information
• Once you locate and review the sources from
the literature search, then you must consider
the question “What should I do with this
information?”
• First, you need to determine if the content of
the source is relevant to your research
problem or question? Try to stay focused…
• If is not relevant, delete it!
 Writing the Review
Now the information that you have reviewed
and synthesized can be put into the review of
the literature…

For your literature review… it should be from

10 to 15 pages with a minimum of 10
references.
 Referencing
• When information is reported from a source, it must
be adequately referenced.

• Please use APA format.