Satellite Communication

Lecture 4
Satellite Link Design and Link Budget Calculations

http://web.uettaxila.edu.pk/CMS/Aut2011/teSCms/
 Overview

 Design of the Satellite Links

 Link Budget Calculations and their
Interpretation
 Design of the Satellite Link
 The satellite link is probably the most basic in
microwave communications since a line-of-sight
path typically exists between the Earth and
space.
 This means that an imaginary line extending
between the transmitting or receiving Earth
station and the satellite antenna passes only
through the atmosphere and not ground
obstacles.
 Such a link is governed by free-space
propagation with only limited variation with
respect to time due to various constituents of the
atmosphere.
 Design of the Satellite Link
 Free-space attenuation is determined by
the inverse square law, which states that the
power received is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance.
 The same law applies to the amount of light that
reaches our eyes from a distant point source such
as an automobile headlight or star.
 There are, however, a number of additional
effects that produce a significant amount of
degradation and time variation.
 These include rain, terrain effects such as
absorption by trees and walls, and some less-
obvious impairment produced by unstable
conditions of the air and ionosphere.
 Design of the Satellite Link
 It is the job of the communication
engineer to identify all of the significant
contributions to performance and make
sure that they are properly taken into
account.
 The required factors include the
performance of the satellite itself, the
configuration and performance of the
uplink and downlink Earth stations, and
the impact of the propagation medium in
the frequency band of interest.
 Design of the Satellite Link
 Also important is the efficient transfer of
user information across the relevant
interfaces at the Earth stations, involving
such issues as the precise nature of this
information, data protocol, timing, and the
telecommunications interface standards
that apply to the service.
 A proper engineering methodology
guarantees that the application will go into
operation as planned, meeting its
objectives for quality and reliability.
 Design of the Satellite Link
 The RF carrier in any microwave communications
link begins at the transmitting electronics and
propagates from the transmitting antenna
through the medium of free space and absorptive
atmosphere to the receiving antenna, where it is
recovered by the receiving electronics.
 The carrier is modulated by a baseband signal
that transfers information for the particular
application.
 The first step in designing the microwave link is
to identify the overall requirements and the
critical components that determine performance.
 For this purpose, we use the basic arrangement
of the link shown in the following Figure:
 Design of the Satellite Link

 Figure 2.1: Critical Elements of the Satellite Link

 Design of the Satellite Link
 The example shows a large hub type
Earth station in the uplink and a
small VSAT in the downlink;
 The satellite is represented by a
simple frequency translating type
repeater (e.g., a bent pipe).
 Most geostationary satellites employ
bent-pipe repeaters since these allow
the widest range of services and
communication techniques.
 Design of the Satellite Link
 Bidirectional (duplex) communication
occurs with a separate transmission
from each Earth station.
 Due to the analog nature of the radio
frequency link, each element
contributes a gain or loss to the link
and may add noise and interference
as well.
 Design of the Satellite Link
 The result in the overall performance is presented
in terms of the ratio of carrier power to noise
(the carrier-to-noise ratio, C/N) and, ultimately,
information quality (bit error rate, video
impairment, or audio fidelity).
 Done properly, this analysis can predict if the link
will work with satisfactory quality based on the
specifications of the ground and space
components.
 Any uncertainty can be covered by providing an
appropriate amount of link margin, which is over
and above the C/N needed to deal with
propagation effects and nonlinearity in the Earth
stations and satellite repeater.
Link Budget and their Interpretation
 The link between the satellite and Earth station is governed
by the basic microwave radio link equation:

 where pr is the power received by the receiving antenna;

pt is the power applied to the transmitting antenna;
gt is the gain of the transmitting antenna;
gr is the gain of the receiving antenna;
c is the speed of light (i.e., approximately 3 × 108 m/s);
R is the range (path length) in meters; and
f is the frequency in hertz.
Link Budget and their Interpretation
 Almost all link calculations are
performed after converting from
products and ratios to decibels.
 The same formula, when converted
into decibels, has the form of a
power balance.
Link Budget and their Interpretation
 The received power in this formula is measured in
decibel relative to 1W, which is stated as dBW.
 The last two terms represent the free-space path
loss (A0) between the Earth station and the
satellite.
 If we assume that the frequency is 1 GHz and
that the distance is simply the altitude of a GEO
satellite (e.g., 35,778 km), then the path loss
equals 183.5 dB; that is,

• for f = 1000000000 Hz and R = 35,778,000 m.

Link Budget and their Interpretation
 We can correct the path loss for other
frequencies and path lengths using the
formula:

 where A0 is the free-space path loss in

decibels, f is the frequency in gigahertz,
and R is the path length in kilometers.
 The term ‘R’ on the right can be expressed
in terms of the elevation angle from the
Earth station toward the satellite,
Link Budget and their Interpretation
 The term ‘R’ on the right can be expressed
in terms of the elevation angle from the
Earth station toward the satellite. i.e.

 where φ (phi) is the latitude and δ (delta)

is the longitude of the Earth station minus
that of the satellite (e.g., the relative
longitude).
Link Budget and their Interpretation
 Substituting for R in A0 we obtain the correction term in
decibels to account for the actual path length.
 This is referred to as the slant range adjustment and is a
function of the elevation angle, θ as shown in Figure 2.3.
Link Budget and their Interpretation

Figure 2.3: Additional path loss due to slant range, versus ground
elevation angle.
 Atmospheric Effects on Link
Budget and their Interpretation
A general quantitative review of ionospheric
effects is provided in table below:
 Atmospheric Effects on Link
Budget and their Interpretation
 Ionospheric effects include effects of:
• Faraday rotation,
• time delay,
• refraction, and
• dispersion.
 It is clear from the data that Ionospheric
effects are not significant at frequencies of
10 GHz and above,
 but must be considered at L-, S-, and C-
bands (L being the worst).
 Atmospheric Effects on Link
Budget and their Interpretation
 Ionospheric effects:
• Faraday rotation of linear polarization (first line
of Table 2.2): This is most pronounced at L-
and S-bands, with significant impact at C-band
during the peak of sunspot activity. It is not a
significant factor at Ku- and Ka bands.
• Ionosphere scintillation (third and fourth lines
of Table 2.2): This is most pronounced in the
equatorial regions of the world (particularly
along the geomagnetic equator). Like Faraday
rotation, this source of fading decreases with
increasing frequency, making it a factor for L-,
S-, and C-band links.
Link Budget and their Interpretation
 Tropospheric (gaseous atmosphere) effects:
• Absorption by air and water vapor (non-condensed):
This is nearly constant for higher elevation angles,
adding only a few tenths of decibels to the path loss. It
generally can be ignored at frequencies below 15 GHz.
• Refractive bending and scintillation (rapid fluctuations of
carrier power) at low elevation angles: Earth stations
that must point within 10° of the horizon to view the
satellite are subject to wider variations in received or
transmitted signal and therefore require more link
margin. Tropospheric scintillation is time varying signal
attenuation (and enhancement) caused by combining of
the direct path with the refracted path signal in the
receiving antenna.
Link Budget and their Interpretation
• Rain attenuation: This important factor increases with
frequency and rain rate. Additional fade margin is
required for Ku- and Ka-band links, based on the
statistics of local rainfall. This will require careful study
for services that demand high availability.
• A standardized rain attenuation predictor, called the
DAH model is available for this purpose [1]. Rain also
introduces scintillation due to scattering of
electromagnetic waves by raindrops, and in a later
section we will see that the raindrops also radiate
thermal noise—a factor that is easily modeled.
• In addition, rain beading on antenna surfaces scatters
and in very heavy rains can puddle on feeds,
temporarily providing high losses not accounted for in
the DAH and thermal noise models.
 Link Budget Example
 Satellite application engineers need to assess and allocate
performance for each source of gain and loss.
 The link budget is the most effective means since it can
address and display all of the components of the power
balance equation, expressed in decibels.
 In the past, each engineer was free to create a personalized
methodology and format for their own link budgets.
 This worked adequately as long as the same person
continued to do the work.
 Problems arose, however, when link budgets were
exchanged between engineers, as formats and assumptions
varied.
 A standardized link budget software tool should be used
that performs all of the relevant calculations and presents
the results in a clear and complete manner.
 Link Budget Example
 We will now evaluate a specific example using a simplified
link budget containing the primary contributors.
 This will provide a typical format and some guidelines for a
practical approach.
 Separate uplink and downlink budgets are provided; our
evaluation of the total end-to-end link presumes the use of
a bent-pipe repeater.
 This is one that transfers both carrier and noise from the
uplink to the downlink, with only a frequency translation
and amplification.
 The three constituents are often shown in a single table,
but dividing them should make the development of the
process clearer for readers.
 The detailed engineering comes into play with the
development of each entry of the table.
 Several of the entries are calculated using straightforward
mathematical equations; others must be obtained through
actual measurements or at least estimates thereof.
 Link Budget Example
 This particular example is for a C-
band digital video link at 40 Mbps,
which is capable of transmitting 8 to
12 TV channels using the Motion
Picture Experts Group 2 (MPEG 2)
standard.
 Link Budget Example:
Downlink Budget
 The following Table 2.3 presents the downlink
budget in a manner that identifies the
characteristics of the satellite transmitter and
antenna, the path, the receiving antenna, and
the expected performance of the Earth station
receiver.
 It contains the elements that select the desired
radio signal (i.e., the carrier) and demodulates
the useful information (i.e., the digital baseband
containing the MPEG 2 “transport” bit stream).
 Once converted back to baseband, the
transmission can be applied to other processes,
such as de-multiplexing, decryption, and digital-
to-analog conversion (D/A conversion).
Link Budget Example:
Downlink Budget
 Link Budget Example:
Downlink Budget
 The following figure provides the
horizontal downlink coverage of Telstar V,
a typical C-band satellite that serves the
United States.
 Each contour shows a constant level of
effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)
(the value at saturation of the transponder
power amplifier).
 Assuming the receiving Earth station is in
Los Angeles, it is possible to interpolate
between the contours and estimate a
value of 38.5 dBW.
 Link Budget Example:
Downlink Budget

Figure 2.6: The downlink coverage footprint of the Telstar V satellite, located
at 97° W. The contours are indicated with the saturated EIRP in decibels
referred to 1W (0 dBW).
 Link Budget Example:
Downlink Budget
 The following parameters relate to the significant
elements in the link (Figure 2.1) and the power
balance equation, all expressed in decibels.
 Most are typically under the control of the
satellite engineer:
• Transmit power (Pt);
• Antenna gain at the peak (Gt) and beam width at the
−3-dB point (θ3dB);
• Feeder waveguide losses (Lt);
• EIRP in the direction of the Earth station;
• Receiver noise temperature (T0);
• Noise figure (NF).
 Link Budget Example:
Downlink Budget
 System noise temperature (Tsys) is the
sum of T0 and the noise contribution of
the receive antenna (Ta).
 The overall Earth station figure of merit is
defined as the ratio of receive gain to
system noise temperature expressed in
decibels per Kelvin—for example, G/T
 The same can be said of EIRP for the
transmit case. Reception is improved if
either the gain is increased or the noise
temperature is decreased; hence the use
of a ratio.
 Link Budget Example:
Downlink Budget
 Each of the link parameters relates to a specific
piece of hardware or some property of the
microwave path between space and ground.
 A good way to develop the link budget is to
prepare it with a spreadsheet program.
 This permits the designer to include the various
formulas directly in the budget, thus avoiding the
problem of external calculation or the potential
for arithmetic error (which still exists if the
formulas are wrong or one adds losses instead of
subtracting them).
 Commercial link budget software, such as
SatMaster Pro from Arrowe Technical Services,
does the same job but in a standardized fashion.
Link Budget Example:
Uplink Budget
 Link Budget Example:
Uplink Budget

The uplink coverage footprint of the Telstar V satellite, located at 97°W.

The contours are indicated with the SFDM in the direction of the Earth
station.
 Link Budget Example:
Uplink Budget
 The repeater in this design is a simple bent pipe that does
not alter or recover data from the transmission from the
uplink. The noise on the uplink (e.g., N in the denominator
of C/N) will be transferred directly to the downlink and
added to the downlink noise.
 In a baseband processing type of repeater, the uplink
carrier is demodulated within the satellite and only the bits
themselves are transferred to the downlink.
 In such case, the uplink noise only produces bit errors (and
possibly frame errors, depending on the modulation and
multiple access scheme) that transfer over the re-
modulated carrier.
 This is a complex process and can only be assessed for the
particular transmission system design in a digital
processing satellite.
 Link Budget Example:
Overall Link Budget
 The last step in link budgeting for a bent-pipe repeater is to
combine the two link performances and compare the result
against a minimum requirement—also called the threshold.
Table 2.5 presents a detailed evaluation of the overall link
under the conditions of line-of-sight propagation in clear
sky. We have included an allocation for interference coming
from sources such as a cross-polarized transponder and
adjacent satellites. This type of entry is necessary because
all operating satellite networks are exposed to one or more
sources of interference. The bottom line represents the
margin that is available to counter rain attenuation and any
other losses that were not included in the link budgets.
Alternatively, rain margin can be allocated separately to the
uplink and downlink, with the combined availability value
being the arithmetic product of the two as a decimal value
(e.g., if the uplink and downlink were each 99.9%, then the
combined availability is 0.999 × 0.999 = 0.998 or 99.8%).
Link Budget Example:
Overall Link Budget
 Link Budget Summary
 Over estimate link specification
 Downlink Budget
 Uplink Budget
 Overall Link Budget
 Softwares for Satellite
Calculations
 http://www.satellite-calculations.com
 http://science.nasa.gov/realtime/
 http://www.qsl.net/kd2bd/predict.ht
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 Q&A
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