ELECTRICITY

It is a form of energy generated by

friction, induction or chemical
change.
TECHNICAL TERMS
• Ampere is the standard unit used in
measuring the strength of an electric
current.
• Atom is the smallest particle of
molecule in which an element can be
divided.
• Current is the flow or the rate of the
flow of electric force in a conductor.
TECHNICAL TERMS
• Electron has a magnetic, chemical and radiant
effect. It is also the negatively charged particle
of an atom.
• Joint is a process whereby one length of wire is
connected or tapped together.
• Neutron is the particle of an atom which do
not carry electrically charged.
• Knick is a slight cut on wire.
• Ohms is the unit of electrical resistance.
TECHNICAL TERMS
• Power is the rate at which heat is generated.
• Proton is the positively charged particle of an atom.
• Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current.
• Skinning /Stripping is a process of removing wire
insulation.
• Solder is a fusible metal or alloy used for joining
metallic surfaces or margins
• Splice is termed “straight joint”; a series connection
of a pair of conductor or cables.
TECHNICAL TERMS
• Taping is the method of insulating conductor
joints.
• Taps is the connection of one wire to some
along the run of another wire
• Volt is the unit of measure for voltage.
• Voltage is the electrical pressure that causes
the electrons to move through a conductor.
• Wire stripper is a tool used to cut and remove
wire insulation from wire.
 INFORMATION SHEET 1.1

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF

ELECTRON
Electricity is a property of the basic particle of matter
which, like an atom, consists of proton, electron and
neutron. The electron is the negatively charged
particle of an atom which is sometimes referred to as
the negatively charge of electricity. On the other
hand, the proton is the positively charged particle of
an atom which is sometimes referred to as the
positively charge of electricity that weighs about 1850
times as much as the electron. The neutron is the
particle which is not electrically charged and weighs
slightly more than proton.
Molecular theory
1. All matters are made up of molecules.
2. All molecules are made up of atoms.
3. All the atoms contain neutron, electrons
and protons.
4. The entire neutron is neutral, hence,
neither positively nor negatively charged.
5. The electron of an atom of any substance
could be transferred to another atom.
The electron theory
The electron theory states that all matter is
made up of electricity. Matter is anything which
has weight, occupies space is made up of
molecules, of which millions of different kinds. The
molecules in turn, are made up of atoms of which
are the smallest units of the several elements and
of a limited number. All atoms believed to be
composed of electrons, which are minute particle
of negative electricity normally held in place in each
atom by positively charged particles called nucleus.
The electron theory
Thus, the electron, which are interlocked
in the atoms, are constantly revealing at
great speeds in orbits around positive nuclei.
In a normal atom, the amount of negative
electricity of the electrons is exactly
neutralized by an equal amount of opposite
or positive electricity of the nucleus. Thus, a
normal atom exhibits no external sign of
electrification.
Structure of an atom
All atoms consist of two basic parts: a body at the
center of the atom called the nucleus, orbiting
around the nucleus. Atoms may have more than one
orbiting electron, but each atom contains only one
nucleus.

Electron

Nucleus
 The attraction between the nucleus and
the electron is called electrostatic force,
which holds the electron in an orbit. Bodies
that attract each other in this special
electrostatic way are described as charged
object. The electron carries the negative
charge (-), while the nucleus carries the
positive charge (+).
 The positive charge of the nucleus is
due to the particles called protons which
are found inside the nucleus and have a
positive charge equal to the electron’s
negative charge.
 The structure of neutrons in the atoms
showing the position of its proton, electron,
nucleus and neutron is shown below.
First Law of Electrostatics
The protons and electrons attract
each other inside the atom. It has been
known that by nature, unlike charges
(like the positive protons and negative
electrons) attract each other while like
charges repel each other; meaning,
electrons and protons repel each
other’s protons.
Unlike charges attract each other

Like charges repel each other

 INFORMATION 2.1

HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity plays an important role in man’s
conquest for existence .It has been said that it is
here with us since the beginning of the time.
In 600 B.C, Thales a Greek philosopher
accidentally discovered static electricity. Noticing
that his garment had bits of hair and straw, Thales
decided to remove them by rubbing piece of
amber stone on his clothes. To his surprise, several
pieces of straw clung to the amber when rubbed
on the clothes, the amber became electrified and
it attracted the pieces of straw.
HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
Thales simply wrote the incident and did not do
anything about it because he could not explain the
mystery. He did not know that he had just
discovered static electricity.
In 1600, William Gilbert, an English Physician was
able to put an electrical charged on the objects by
means of friction or rubbing. He observed that two
materials when rubbed together received opposite
charges, that is, one object got a positive charge and
the other a negative charge. He also noticed that
two oppositely charged materials attract each other.
HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
Gilbert experiment was a re-
discovery of static electricity, the word
static means standing still or at rest. The
Greek word for amber stone is “
ELEKTRON” and so the term electricity
came about.
Great persons who involved in the discovery
of electricity:

1760- Benjamin Franklin, An American scientist,

proved that atmospheric electricity (lightning)
and static electricity are the same.
1800- Alessandro Volta, An Italian Professor,
discovered the voltaic file by means of stocking
zinc plate (-) and silver plate (+).
1819- Hans Christian Oestered, A Danish Physicist
proved in an experiment that current electricity
can produced a magnetic field.
Great persons who involved in the discovery
of electricity:

1831 Michael Faraday, An English scientist

discovered the first electric generator.
1831- Samuel Morse, developed the
telegraph.
1868-George de Clanche, developed the
first practical dry cell.
1878-Charles Brush, invented the arc lamp
1879- Thomas Alba Edison, perfected the
first electric bulb
Sources of electricity
1. Friction -It is a static electricity which
is generated by rubbing two materials.
2. Chemical action - It is a great deal of
the world’s electricity produced by
batteries. These devices generate a
different potential means of chemical
action.
Sources of electricity
3. Heat action- Two dissolution metals bonded
together in a junction when heated, exhibits
a difference of potential. Such bond is
called thermocouple. The trip of an iron
wire, for example, may be welded to that of
a copper wire. When, this junction is
heated, the iron wire shows a positive charge
and the copper wire has a negative charge.
Electricity generated by heat action is called
thermoelectric.
Sources of electricity
4. Light action- Photo cells are semi-
conduction devices which convert light
electrical energy directly into electrical
energy. Either sunlight or artificial
illumination may be employed. This
action is due to the ability of lights energy
to free electrons from the atoms of the
semi-conductor material. This process
is called photo-electricity.
Sources of electricity
5. Pressure -It is a difference of potential appears
across the face of certain crystal such as quarts,
when they are squeezed or stretched. This is
called piezo-electricity.
6. Mechanical action -All electricity in large useful
amount is at present produced by rotating
machines working with the use of magnets.
These machines, known as generator, are
turned by water power, gas engines or steam
engines and sometimes by electric motor.
There are many different types of mechanical
power plants to produce electrical energy.

Hydropower is an energy
obtained from flowing water.
Energy in water can be
harnessed and used in the
foot motive energy or
temperature differences. The
most common application is
the dam.

Power produced by the

fall of water from a higher to
a lower level and extracted
by means of waterwheels or
hydraulic turbines. Hydro-
power is a natural resource
available wherever a
sufficient volume of steady
water flow exists.
 Nuclear Power is the method in which steam is produced by
heating water through a process called nuclear fission. In a nuclear
power plant, a reactor contains a core of nuclear fuel, primary
enriched uranium. When atoms of uranium fuel are hit by
neutrons they fission (split), releasing heat neutrons.
Nuclear power is an electrical power produced from energy
released by controlled fission or fusion of atomic nuclei in a
nuclear reaction. Mass is converted into energy and the amount of
released energy greatly exceeds that from chemical processes such
as combustion.
 Solar Power is a power derived from the energy of the sun. A
radiant energy produced in the Sun as a result of nuclear fusion
reactions. It is transmitted to the earth through space by
electromagnetic radiation in quanta of energy called photons
which interact with the earth’s atmosphere and surface.
 Wind Power is the kinetic energy of wind or the extraction of this
energy by wind turbines. Windmill machine converts wind into useful
energy. This energy is derived from the force of wind acting on oblique
blades or sails that radiate from a shaft. The turning shaft may be
connected to machinery used to perform such work as milling grain,
pumping water, or generating electricity. When the shaft is connected
to a load, such as a pump, the device is typically called a windmill.
When it is used to generate electricity, it is known as a wind turbine
generator.
 Fossil Fuel Power
Plant (FFPP) – (also
known as steam electric
power plant in the US,
thermal power plant in
Asia, or power station
in UK). The most
common source of
energy is fossil fuel.
Fossil fuels include
coal, oil, and natural
gas.
Fossil fuel is formed
from the remains of
plant and animals
which live thousands of
years ago. The burning
of those fossil fuel
provides energy which
can be used to generate
electricity.
 Geothermal power comes from heat energy buried beneath the
surface of the earth. In some areas of the country, enough heat rises
close to the surface of the earth to heat underground water into
steam which can be tapped for use in steam-turbine plants.
Geothermal Power is the energy extracted from the heat
generated by natural concentrations of hot water and steam in the
earth’s interior. It can be used in electric power generation and
direct heat applications such as space heating and industrial drying
z
processes.
 Tides is another
kind of energy that
involves water.
Ocean tides can be
used to turn
turbines to generate
electricity. For this
to be possible, a
dam must be built
across the month of
a bay. Water then in
trapped behind the
dam at the high tide.
At the low tide, the
water is allowed to
run out through the
dam and used to
turn on electrical
generator.
 INFORMATION SHEET 3.1

TAPS, SPLICES AND JOINTS

Method of Skinning Electrical Wire

Removing the insulation in preparing the

insulated conductors for making joints or
splices, the insulation must first be removed
from each conductor a proper distance
depending upon the type of joint or splice
to be made.
This process is called skinning or stripping.
Cleaning the Conductor

After removing the insulation, the wires must

be thoroughly cleaned to ensure good electric
contact between the ends of the wires so that the
solder will adhere properly. The wire may be
cleaned by scraping.
 Different electrical wires, splices and joints
Types of taps, Splices and Joints of Conductor

Rat tail joints are

used to join conductors
in outlet boxes or when
Twists
fixture leads are
connected through
conductors. The joints
Cross
are made by skinning
about 2 inches, the end
of the conductor is to be
joined. Then twist the
bare conductors about
six times.
 Western Union Short tie
splice - To make the splice,
the wires are first skinned
for about 3 inches insulation.
Four or five short turns are
then wrapped on each side of
the loat the ends. They are
then placed in crossed
position about 1 inch from
the ngest twist, and the free
ends cut off and squeezed
down closed to the straight
position of the wire so that
they will not extend over the
surface of the short turns and
permit the sharp to cut
through the tape with the
splice to be wrapped.
 Western Union Long Tie Splice is used extensively for
outside wiring and is quite similar to the short tie splice. It is
also being used for interior wiring. The difference is that a
number of long twist are made before wrapping the end turns.
This is done so to withstand greater stress of pressure on the
wire. The wire for this splice are bared about 4 ½ inches. They
are then placed in the form of an X at a point midway between
the insulation and the end of the base wire. Five or six long
twists are then made and each side those turns are wrapped.
 Britannia Splice is used in interior wiring where solid wires of No. 6
AWG gauge or larger sizes are to be joined and where large wire
connectors or pliers are not at hand. The two wires are based for about
4 inches in a No. 6 wire. About ½ inch of the extreme end of each beat
to almost a right angle to the straight portion of the conductor. A
wrapping wire made of No. 18 bare wire copper is then cut to about 6
ft. in length and prepared by cleaning and bending in half. The large
conductors are then laid together, one bent end pointing upward and
the other downward. The center of the wrapping wire is then brought
to the center of the conductor, one half of which is wrapped in one
direction and other remaining half in the other as far as the best
portion. The free ends are then forced through the grooves from one
ends to the other end of the other of the large single conductors. The
best ends are then cut off close to the joint.
 Scarfed splice. It is used only on a large solid wire where there
is an objection to the bulkiness of the Western Union or
Britannia splice. The wires are bared for about 3 inches when a
No. 6 wire is used.
The bared wire is then filed to a wedge shape starting
about ½ inch from the insulations. A piece of No. 18 bare
copper wire is cut to about 5 ft. in length and prepared by
cleaning and bending in half.
The two file sides of the conductors are then laid together
and wrapping wire wound around them as similarly done in
Britannia Splice. The wrapping is completed by winding about
six and seven turns of the free ends around the unfilled portion
of the conductor.
 Multiple wrapped cable splice is used more extensively on
small strand wires and cables because these stands are more
pliable and may be wound together without much difficulty.
Large strands are rigid and require considerable time in
making such a splice. To make the splice, the ends of the
conductors are skinned at the distance of about 6 inches. The
strands are cleaned and spread about apart. Next, the strands
are cut about 3 inches from the insulation to right angle with
the conductor. The strands of both conductors are then laced
together, one group of strands wounds in the opposite
direction. Care should be done that all strands in each group
are wrapped simultaneously and parallel to one another.
 Plain tap or Tee Joints is used to a great extent joining a
tap or other conductor to a through conductor, as for
example, a branch or main circuit. To make the joint, skin
the tap wire about 2 inches and the main wire about 1 inch.
Next, the wires are crossed intersecting about ¼ inch from
the insulation of the tap wire and the main wire. A hook or
sharp bend is then made in the tap and about five or six
turns wound around the main wire. The joint is soldered and
tape. Care must be taken that the solder flows and sticks
through all the crevices and that the tape covers all part of
the conductors, beginning and ending on the original
insulation.
 Knotted or loop, tap joint is very strong joint and will not
untwist even enough strain is placed upon it. It is occasionally
used in practice, particularly for temporary lighting systems,
where time is not taken to solder joints. To make the join using
No. 14 AWG wire, the tap wire is skinned about 3 inches and is
then placed over the insulation of the tap and main wire. The
tap wire is bent and hooked over the main wire and brought
forward and bent over itself. Lastly, the remaining portion is
wound into four or five short turns around the main wire.
 Wrapped Tap, Tee Joint is used on large solid
conductors where is difficult to wrap the heavy tap
wire around the main wire. When a No. 6 AGW wire is
used, both the main wire and the tap wire are skinned
about 4 inches. The tap wire is bent into an L shape
about ½ inches from the insulation so that it will rest
along the side of the main wire. A wrapping wire is
then prepared using size No. 18 bare conductors
terminating beyond the bent of tap wire and up to the
installation of the main conductor.
 Ordinary Cable Tap or Tee Joint is used where large
stranded wire or cables are tapped to a through conductor. To
make the joint, the main strands should be scraped through
with a knife blade or sandpaper. The tap wire of similar wire
size cable should be skinned about 6 inches distance and the
strands separated or fanned each strands of the tap into the
shape. The main cable is placed into this V-shaped space and
forced down to within 1 inch from the insulation of the tap
conductor. One group of tap wires is then wound around the
main conductor, each strands should be placed parallel to the
other, and all wrapped at the same time and in one direction.
The other group is wound in similar manner but in opposite
directions.
 Split Cable Tap or Tee Joint is used where stranded cables or wire
are tapped to a through conductor. This joint is stronger than the
ordinary cable tap and will not unwrap even though a strain is placed
upon it prior soldering. To make this joint, the main wire is skinned a
distance of 5 inches No. 14 American Wire Gauge (AWG) wire size is
used and the strands thoroughly scraped as for the ordinary cable tap.
The strands are next divided in half by forcing the screw driver through
the center of the bared portion of the main wire. The tap wire is
prepared by skinning it about 6 inches, scraping each strand until
thoroughly cleaned and fanning out the strands so that they can be
pushed around the space in the main wire. A space about 1 ½ inch
should be left between the main wire and the insulation of the tap wire.
In completing the joint, one group is wound around the main conductor,
in one direction; and the second group is wound in the opposite
direction.
 The Through Fixture Joint is used where fixtures are
connected to branch wires at an intermediate point. In making
this joint, the end of one conductor is skinned about 2 inches
and the other about 4 inches. At a point ¼ inches away from
the insulation of the longer wire, three or four long twists are
made similar to the rat-tail joint. The long bared portion of the
long wire is bent over parallel with the free ends. Both free ends
are then place alongside each other wrapped together around
the straight bared portion.
 Safety procedure in splicing and joining wire

Before the splice is made, the insulation is first

removed on both ends with the use of an
electrician’s knife or diagonal pliers. An
electrician should be very careful in removing
wire insulation in order that the wire will not be
nicked by the knife or pliers to prevent breaking.
However, a specially designed tool to avoid nicks
is called automatic wire stripper.
Safety procedure in splicing and joining wire

The function of the tool is to cut the wire

insulation and remove it automatically by
inserting the wire corresponding to the size of
hole in the wire stripper. After removing the
insulation, the end of the wire is twisted firmly.
When the joint has been made, the correct
practice is to solder it to prevent loose contact
and to have a continuous flow of electricity. The
splice and joint are then covered properly with
an electrical tape in order to prevent short
circuit.
 INFORMATION SHEET 4.1

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Parts of a Complete Circuit

In order that electricity can be better
understood different parts or components of a
complete circuit must be known well. First, the
electrical circuit should have a source of power
where the electric current starts to flow. The
power source can be a generator, storage cell
one or more cells. Second, a path such as
electrical wires is needed in order that electricity
from the source can be transmitted.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Parts of a Complete Circuit

Third, there should be a current- consuming
device or appliance that will consume or use
electricity. And lastly, a control or switch that will
cut off the flow of current, when the appliance
will not be in use. All the requirements
mentioned are important in order to have
complete electrical circuit. The absence of one
will not make a complete electric circuit.
 Parts of complete
circuit

Electrical path

source of power Current

consuming
device

Swit
ch
Types of circuit

1. Series Circuit

In a series circuit, many bulbs are wired one after

the other, so that when one of the bulb is busted,
all will not light up. The reason is that the current
cannot pass through the bulb because of the
filament is cut. So there is no continuity for current
in order to go back to the power source.
 In a series connection, electricity flows through
each electrical device. You have to observe that the
two bulbs connected in series would light more
brightly than if there were three bulbs in the circuit.
The brightness of the light depends on the amount
flowing in each device.

B1 B2

Source of
Power B3
Switch
Laws of series circuit:

• The total resistance in the circuit is the

sum of all individual resistances.
• The current throughout the circuit is
the same.
• The total voltage in the circuit is equal
to the sum of the individual voltages.
2.Parallel Circuit.

This is the circuit whereby two or more

bulbs are wired with each bulb having its own
circuit. This means that if one is busted, the
other bulb will still light up because current
passes separately in each circuit. In a parallel
circuit, the electric current flows and only a
part of the total current in the circuit goes
through each bulb. Each bulb has a circuit of its
own with the battery so the electric current
flowing through each bulb moves in a different
path in the circuit.
Laws of parallel circuit:

• The voltage is the same across each branch.

• The total current is the sum of all the current in
each circuit.
• The total resistance is less or approximately equal
to the smallest resistive branch
 INFORMATION SHEET 4.2
Ohm’s Law and Power Law

If we are going to study the meaning of

electricity deeper, there are three essential
elements involved. These are voltage, current
and resistance. George Simon Ohm, a German
scientist, discovered in 1826 the relations among
them. The discovery led to one of the major laws
in electricity called Ohm’s Law. Each of the
elements has its own unit of measurement, volt
for voltage, ampere for current, ohm for
resistance.
Ohm’s Law and Power Law
Volt is named after Alessandro Volta, a physicist
whose invention made volt as an electrical pressure
needed in allowing one ampere of current pass
through resistance of one ohm. Another inventor,
named Andre Marie Ampere, a physicist and
Mathematician, whose one ampere of current is the
rate of flow of charge passing in a wire conductor that
is equal to one coulomb per second. Electric power is
measured in watts, abbreviated W as a unit. This unit is
named after James Watt, a Scotch inventor. It is equal
to the product of the voltage multiplied by the current.
The total power of a circuit is obtained by multiplying
the total current by the voltage.
The statement of Ohms law

The amount of current through the

material varies directly to the applied
voltage and varies inversely to the
resistance.
Summary of the Ohm’s Law and Power Law

Unit of Symbol Formula

measure
VOLTAGE Volt E or V E= I x R
CURRENT Ampere I I=E/R
RESISTANCE Ohms R or Ω R = E / R
POWER Watt W P=ExI
 INFORMATION SHEET 5.1

RESISTOR

Resistors are one of the most common

electronic components. A resistor is a device
that limits or resists the flow of current. Resistor
can be made from many different materials but
the most common is carbon composition. The
current limiting ability or resistance can be
varied by charging the ratio of carbon to binding
agent. Resistance is measured in ohms,
represented by the Greek symbol omega (Ω).
Types of resistors
1. Carbon Composition is made
either by hot or cold molding from
mixtures of carbon and clay binder. Its
resistive value ranges from 10 ohms to
mega ohms, in power ranges from 1/8
to 4 watts. It has the ability to
withstand higher current surges and
ruggedness.
 This type is as well popular. It is made from a
mixture of carbon powder and glue-like binder.
To increase the resistance, less carbon is
added. These resistors show predictable
performance, low inductance, and low
capacitance. Power ratings range from about
1/4 to 2 W. Resistances range from 1 Ohm to
about 100 MOhm, with tolerances around +/-
5 percent.
 2. Carbon Film is made from carbon
graphite, mixed with powdered
insulating material. It has two main
characteristics; resistance and power
rating. Carbon resistor is available in
resistance values from tenths of ohms
to hundred of mega ohms.
 3. Metal Film is formed by means of
vacuum decomposition, a process by which
a number of different metal or metal oxide
film is deposited on a suitable insulating
mandrel or core. Nickel and chromium are
deposited in the alumina ceramic core and
the unit is then subjected to laser trimming.
 4. Wire wound highly resistive wire is
wrapped around the insulating core. The
length of the wire determines the resistance
of the device. Insulating cores are usually
made of cement of ceramic materials or just
plain paper or pressed cardboard. This type
of resistor provides low resistance. The unit
is encased by insulating materials.
 Resistor color coding

Table showing the color band and its numerical value

Reading a 4-color band resistor
Reading a 5-color band resistor
Examples of resistor reading:

1. A carbon resistor coded BROWN, GREEN, BLACK,

and GOLD has the resistance value of 15 Ohms, and
a tolerance of ± 5%.
2. Resistance reading of a carbon composition
resistor using the color code.
3. Decoding the resistance value of a
carbon composition-type resistor
using the color code.
4. Determine the resistor value of a carbon
composition resistor using the color code.
5. Determine the resistance reading of a carbon-
type using the EIA color code.
 INFORMATION SHEET 6.1

CAPACITORS
INTRODUCTION

Capacitor is a device that stores energy in the

electric field created between a pair of
conductor on which equal but opposite electric
charge have been placed. A capacitor is
occasionally referred to using the older term
condenser. A capacitor has two or more
conducting plates segregated from each other
by good insulating material called dielectric.
 Types of capacitor
1. Electrolytic capacitor is made of electrolyte,
basically conductive salt in solvent. Leaky condition
can be checked by connecting the ohmmeter test
leads across the capacitor in one polarity.
2. Ceramics are made with materials such as
titanium acid barium for dielectric. Internally,
these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so
they are suited for use in high frequency
applications. They are shaped like a disk, available
in very small capacitance value and very small
size.
3. Polyester film (mylar) uses a thin polyester film as
a dielectric. Not as high tolerance polypropylene,
but cheap, temperature stable, readily available,
widely used. Tolerance is approximately 5% to 10%.
It can be quite large depending on capacitor rate
voltage and so many are not be suitable for all
application.
4. Mica is an extremely accurate device with
very low leakage currents. It is constructed
with alternate layers of metal foil and mica
insulation, stacked and encapsulated. These
capacitors have small capacitances and are
often used in high frequency circuits (eg. : RF
circuits). They are very stable under variable
voltage and temperature conditions.
Tolerances range from +/-0.25 to +/-5
percent. Capacitances range from 1 pf to 0.01
uF, with maximum voltage ratings from 100 V
to 2.5 kV. This capacitor uses a thin polyester
film as a dielectric.
CAPACITOR READING
CAPACITOR READING
Examples:

1 3,200 picofarad = 0.0032

±5% microfarad ±5%

2 380 picofarad = 0.00038

±10% microfarad ±10%

460,000 = 0.46 microfarad

3 picofarad
Examples:

4. 2,000 picofarad = 2,000K

5. 22,000 picofarad = 0.022

microfarad