Chapter 1

Introduction

© Worboys and Duckham (2004)

GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Chapter 1.1

What is GIS?

© Worboys and Duckham (2004)

GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 What is GIS
Information systems: an association of
What is a GIS
people, machines, data, and procedures
working together to collect, manage, and
distribute information of importance to
Functionality
individuals or organizations
Data and
databases
Geographic information system (GIS): a
computer-based information system that
Hardware enables capture, modeling, storage,
support
retrieval, sharing, manipulation, and
presentation of geographically referenced data

Geospatial data: geographically referenced

data

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 The shape of GIS
Databases elements
What is a GIS
Data Processing element

Functionality Data storage and retrieval element

Data and
Data sharing element
databases
Data presentation element
Hardware
support
Spatial reasoning element

Accuracy, precision, and reliability

Spatiotemporal element

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Data and information
Context: the structure of interrelationships
What is a GIS
between data and how data is collected,
processed, used, and understood within an
application
Functionality
Understanding the data model and the limitations of
Data and data, are elements of the context for data
databases
Data is only useful, taking on value as
Hardware information, within its context
support

information = data + context

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Chapter 1.2

GIS functionality

© Worboys and Duckham (2004)

GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality
Example: “The
What is a GIS
Potteries”

The Potteries comprise

Functionality six pottery towns

Data and The region developed

databases
during the English
Hardware
industrial revolution
support
Local communities
produced high quality
ware from conditions of
poverty

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: resources inventory
Locally important
tourist industry, based
What is a GIS upon the industrial
heritage of the area
Functionality A GIS can draw
together data on
Data and cultural and
databases
recreational facilities
within the region, and
Hardware
support
combine this data with
details of local
transport infrastructure
and hotel
accommodation
Places of interest in the
Potteries region

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: network analysis
We want to find a
What is a GIS
route using the major
road network, visiting
each pottery (and the
Functionality
City Museum) only
Data and
once, while minimizing
databases the traveling time
Hardware A travel-time network
support
between potteries is
the required data set
Derived from average
times on the main roads
shown on the map

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: network analysis
Traveling salesperson
algorithm
What is a GIS
Construct a minimal
weight route through a
Functionality network that visits each
node at least once

Data and Could be dynamic;

databases assigning weights to the
edges of the network
Hardware and calculating optimal
support routes depending upon
changeable road
conditions

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: distributed data

What is a GIS

Functionality

Data and
databases

Hardware
support

Data from different sources must be integrated,

processed, and transmitted to the tourist before they
can receive navigation directions and information
about local attraction
© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: terrain analysis
Local communities are often interested in the
What is a GIS
visual impact of proposed new opencast coal
mining sites
Functionality Visibility analysis can be used to evaluate
visual impact
Data and
databases Measuring the size of the local population within a
given viewshed (a map of all the points visible from
Hardware some location)
support

Terrain analysis is usually based upon data sets

of topographic elevation at point locations

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: terrain analysis

What is a GIS

Functionality

Data and
databases

Hardware
support Perspective projection draped by
Contour map
the viewshed
Darker shaded regions give the
area from which the marked point
would not be visible

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: layer-based analysis
Determining the
potential of different
What is a GIS locations for sand and
gravel extraction
Functionality Drawing together and
analyzing data from
variety of sources
Data and
databases • Geological data,
• urban structure,
Hardware • water table level,
support • transportation
network,
• land prices, and
• land zoning

Locations of sand and gravel

deposits in the Potteries region

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: layer-based analysis
Query: find all locations that are within 0.5 km of a major
road, not in a built-up area, and on a sand/gravel deposit
What is a GIS

0.5 km Known
Functionality buffer of sand and
major gravel
roads (not deposits
Data and
including
databases
the
motorway
Hardware
support
Shaded Overlay of
areas the three
indicate other layers
locations giving area
that are that satisfies
not built the query
up
© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: location analysis
Locating a clinic in
What is a GIS
the Potteries
Construct the
“neighborhood” of
Functionality
clinics, based upon
positions of nearby
Data and
databases
clinics and travel
times
Hardware We can then
support
support decisions
to relocate, close,
or create a new
clinic

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Functionality: spatiotemporal information
Spatiotemporal questions:

What is a GIS
Which streets have changed name
Which streets have changed spatial reference
In what year is the existence of the Cobridge Brick Works
Functionality
last recorded in the system

Data and
databases

Hardware
support

1878 1924
Source: Ordnance Survey
© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Chapter 1.3

Data and databases

© Worboys and Duckham (2004)

GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Review: bits and bytes
Data stored in a computer system is measured
What is a GIS
in bits
each bit records one of two possible states
Functionality • 0 (off, false)
• 1 (on, true)
Data and Bits are amalgamated into bytes
databases
• Each byte represents a single character
• A character may be encoded using 7 bits with an extra
Hardware
support bit used as an error check
• Each byte allows for 27 = 127 possible character
combinations
• Two-byte characters allow for 216 = 65536 different
character combinations

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Spatial data

What is a GIS

Functionality

Data and
databases

Hardware
support

Raster data is structured as Vector is a finite straight line

an array or grid of cells, segment defined by its end points.
referred to as pixels The locations of end-points are
given with respect to some
coordination of the plane

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Spatial Data
Raster
What is a GIS Natural structures to use in computers as
programming languages commonly support array
handling and operations
Functionality
Inefficient in terms of usage of computer storage
Data and
databases
Vector
More efficient in its use of computer storage as only
Hardware
support
points of interest need be stored
Assume a hard edged boundary model of the world

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Database as data store
Database: a repository of data that is logically
What is a GIS
related, but possibly physically distributed over
several sites
Functionality A database is created and maintained using a
database management system (DBMS)
Data and
databases
For a database to be useful it must be:
Hardware Reliable
support
Correct and consistent
Technology proof
Secure

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Data capture
Data capture: the process of collecting data
What is a GIS
from observations of the physical environment

Sensors are a primary source of data for a GIS

Functionality and are used to measure some feature of the
geographic environment
Data and
databases
Legacy data (such as paper maps) are a
Hardware
secondary source of data
support
Automatic conversion
Manual conversion

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Data modeling
The process of developing a database is
What is a GIS
essentially a process of model building
Application domain model: describes the core
requirements of users in a particular application
Functionality
domain, based on an initial study
Data and Conceptual model: tailored to a particular type of
databases implementation
Physical computational model: the result of a
Hardware
support process of programming and system implementation

Secondary modeling tasks

System maintenance
System documentation

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Data retrieval and analysis
To retrieve data from a databases we may
What is a GIS
perform a query:
Retrieve names and addresses of all opencast coal
mines in Staffordshire
Functionality
• Data may be retrieved by a simple look up and match
Data and Retrieve names and addresses of all employees of
databases Wedgwood Pottery who earn more than half the sum
earned by the managing director
Hardware
support • Numerical comparison

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Spatial data retrieval and analysis
Query: is there any correlation between:

What is a GIS
The location of vehicle accidents (as recorded on a hospital
database); and
Designated “accident black spots” for the area?
Functionality
Satisfying this query will require the integration of both
spatial and non-spatial information
Data and
databases
Performance
Hardware Spatial data is notoriously large and often hierarchically
support structured
Geospatial data is often embedded in the Euclidean plane,
therefore spatial storage structures and access methods are
required

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Data Presentation
A report generator is a standard feature of a
What is a GIS
DBMS that allows data from a database to be
laid out in a clear human-readable format
Functionality Many databases also support business
graphics
Data and
databases
Map- based presentation is a distinctive
Hardware
feature of a GIS
support
Some DBMSs and GISs provide tools for data
mining
Highly flexible presentation capabilities

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Data distribution
Distributed database: multiple databases connected by a
digital communication network
What is a GIS
Data may be more appropriately associated with one site
rather than another
Functionality Greater degree of autonomy and easier update and
maintenance
Data and Increased reliability
databases
Failure at one site will not mean failure of the entire system
Hardware
support
Improved performance
Access to local sites from local users will be more efficient
More intricate structure to support
Must handle queries where the data is fragmented across
sites, and maintain the consistency of data

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Chapter 1.4

Hardware support

© Worboys and Duckham (2004)

GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Von Neumann Architecture
A computer system can be thought of as
What is a GIS
comprising four major subsystems:

Processing Control
Functionality
Storage Input/output

Data and
databases

Hardware
support

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Processing and control
Processing of data in the computer hardware is handled
by the central processing unit (CPU)
What is a GIS
Executes machine instructions by fetching data into special
registrars and then performing computer arithmetic upon
them
Functionality
Operations are performed upon data sequentially
• Retrieving stored data,
Data and • Executing the appropriate operation, and then
databases
• Returning the results to storage
The CPU and other components in the computer are
Hardware
support
connected by communication wires, called a bus
CPU is made up of
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
• Responsible for actual processing function
the control unit
• Responsible for the control function, managing and allocating resources

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Storage devices
Primary storage: can be directly manipulated
What is a GIS
by the CPU

CPU and control unit requires their own local

Functionality memory

Data and
This memory is the fastest and most expensive type of
databases storage

Hardware
Other types of primary storage are referred to as
support main memory
RAM (volatile)
ROM (non-volatile)
Flash memory

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Storage devices
Secondary storage: can be accessed only indirectly by
the CPU (via input/output controllers)
What is a GIS
Based upon magnetic or optical technology
Cheaper than primary storage
Functionality
Non volatile
Blocks of data are found using direct access
Data and
databases • using a unique physical address
Precise read/write location is found using sequential
Hardware access
support
• After reaching the desired block, the data from the block is
scanned in sequence

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Storage devices

What is a GIS

Functionality

Data and
databases

Hardware
support

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Human input devices
Keyboard Digitizing

What is a GIS Pointing devices

Mouse,
Functionality Touchpad,
Joysticks
Data and
databases Digitizers
Needed for legacy
Hardware data capture
support
Scanners

Microphone in combination with speech recognition

system

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Human output devices
Hard copy (physical permanence)
What is a GIS Printers
Plotters
Functionality
Soft copy (transient and intangible)
Data and Computer screen
databases
Sound from audio devices
Hardware
support

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Digital networks

What is a GIS
Most communication
networks are digital:
Functionality
series of bits is
transmitted using
Data and signal bursts at
databases
different intensities
corresponding to the
Hardware
support binary values 0 and
1

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Analog networks

What is a GIS
Older data
communication
Functionality technology
sometimes uses
Data and
analog signals:
databases
Signal strength can
vary continuously
Hardware
support like a sine wave

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Electromagnetic radiation
All communication networks use
What is a GIS
electromagnetic (EM) radiation to propagate
signals
Functionality The frequency and wavelength of EM radiation affect
its transmission properties
Data and The range of wavelengths or frequencies available for
databases data transmission is called the bandwidth

Hardware
Higher bandwidth means greater data transmission
support capacity
Media used for data transmission
• Copper (conventional phone lines)
• Fiber-optic cables
• Earths Atmosphere (wireless)

© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press
 Magnetic spectrum

What is a GIS

Functionality

Data and
databases

Hardware
support

Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, and visible light can all

be used for computer networks
High-frequency ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays are not
used for data transmission
© Worboys and Duckham (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective, Second Edition, CRC Press