UNIT-2

Mobile Radio Propagation-I

 Free Space Propagation Model
• The mechanisms behind EM wave propagation
are reflection, diffraction and scattering.
• For cellular systems there is no direct line of
sight path between transmitter and receiver.
• Propagation models predict the average
received signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter – receiver (T-R) seperation
distances that are useful in estimating the
radio coverage .
 Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
• If T-R separation distances are large they are
called as large – scale propagation models.

• If T-R separation distances are small they are

called as small – scale propagation models.

• Free space propagation model is used to predict

the received signal strength when the transmitter
and receiver have a clear, unobstructed LOS
between them.
• Eg: Satellite communication systems
Free Space Propagation Model continued--
--
• The free space model predicts that the
received power decays as a function of T-R
separation distance increases.

• Free space power received by receiver

antenna which is separated by a distance ‘d’ is
given by “ Friis free space equation” given by
 Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
• Where ,
Pt is the Transmitted power
Pr(d) is the received power as a function of T-R
separation distance.
Gt Transmitter antenna gain
Gr Receiver antenna gain
d is the T-R separation distance
L is the system loss factor
λ is the wave length in meters.
 Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
• The gain the antenna is related to the effective
aperture ‘Ae’

The effective aperture is related to physical size of antenna

and
λ is related to its carrier frequency given by
Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
• Where
• f is the carrier frequency in Hz
• Wc is the carrier frequency in radians per second
• C is the velocity of light.
• The system losses are usually due to the
attenuation in transmission lines, filter losses,
antenna losses.
• A value of L=1 indicates there are no losses in the
system hardware.
Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
• Path loss is defined as the difference(in
decibels) between transmitted power and
received power.
• Given by
Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
• When antenna gains are assumed to have
unity gain then path loss is given by
Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
• The Friis free space model is only a valid
predictor for “Pr ” for values of “d” which are
in the far-field of the Transmitting antenna
• Thus in practice, power can be measured at
d0 and predicted at d using the relation
 Free Space Propagation Model
continued----
where d>= d0 >= df

 df is Fraunhofer distance which complies:

df =2D2/
where D is the largest physical linear dimension
of the antenna
 Example 1
• Find the far-field distance for an antenna with
maximum dimension of 1 m and operating
frequency of 900 MHz.

Given;
Largest dimension of antenna, D = 1m
Operating freq, f = 900MHz,
Far-field distance
12
 Example 2
• (a) If a transmitter produces 50 watts of
power, express the transmit power in units of
dBm, and dBW.
• (b) If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain
antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency,
find the received power in dBm at a free
space distance of 100 m from the antenna,
What is Pr (10 km)? Assume unity gain for the
receiver antenna.

13
 Example 2 continued-----
Solution
(a) TX power in dBm = 10 log10 (Pt/1mW)
= 10 log10 (50/1mW)=47 dBm

Tx power in dBW = 10 log10 (Pt/1W)

= 10 log10(50)=17 dBW

(b)
Rx power = Pr(d) = Pt Gt Gr  / (4)2 d2 L
Wavelength,  = 0.3333333 , GT=Gr = 1, D=100 m, L=1
Pr(100 m) = 3.52167x10-06 W = 3.5x10-3 mW =10log (3.5*10-3) = -
24.5 dBm
Pr(10*1000 m) = 3.5*10-3 /10^4 = 3.5*10-7 mW

14
 Basic Propagation Mechanisms
• There are three basic propagation mechanisms:
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
• Reflection occurs when an EM wave impinges on
an object which has very large dimensions as
compared to the wavelength
• Eg: surface of the earth, buildings, walls etc.
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
continued-----
• If a radio wave incident on a perfect dielectric
part f energy is reflected back and part of
energy is transmitted into the dielectric.
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
continued-----
• The electric field intensity of the reflected
wave and transmitted wave can be related by
the Fresnal Reflection coefficient
Basic Propagation Mechanisms continued-----

• Diffraction Occurs when the radio path

between transmitter and receiver is
obstructed by the surface that has sharp
irregularities(edges).
• Scattering occurs when the medium has
objects that has smaller or comprable
wavelengths
• Eg:small objects, rough surfaces, water
droplets, rain, snow, dust particles etc.
 Ground Reflection Model
Classical 2-ray ground bounce model
• One line of sight and one ground reflected path.
• This is a large scale propagation model in which
distance between transmitter and receiver is of
several kilometers.
Ground Reflection Model continued-----------

• The received signal is effected by the path

difference delta
• Given by

After simplifying using taylor series

appriximation the path difference is given
below
 Ground Reflection Model continued-----------

• The above expressions are obtained by using

the method of images as shown below
Ground Reflection Model continued----
-------
• The received power can be depend upon the
path difference given by
 Knife Edge Diffraction Model
• The phenomenon of diffraction can be
explained by Huygens's principle, which states
that all points on a wave front can be
considered as point sources for the production
of secondary wavelets.
• The field strength of a diffracted wave in the
shadowed region is the vector sum of the
electric field components of all the secondary
wavelets in the space around the obstacle.
Knife Edge Diffraction Model continued------

Consider a receiver at a point R is located in the shadowed

region .
The field strength at point R in the above figure is the vector
sum of fields due to all of the secondary Huygen’s sources
in the plane above the knife edge.
Knife Edge Diffraction Model continued------

• The diffraction gain due to the presence of a

knife edge, as compared to the free space E-
field ,is given by

Where Is the Fresnal – Kirchoff diffraction parameter given by

Here ‘h’ is the effective height of obstructing

screen as shown in above figure.
Knife Edge Diffraction Model continued------

• An approximate solution for diffraction gain

Is given by Lee is shown below
 Scattering
• The medium which the wave travels consists of objects with
dimensions smaller than the wavelength and where the
number of obstacles per unit volume is large – rough
surfaces, small objects, foliage, street signs, lamp posts.
• Generally difficult to model because the environmental
conditions that cause it are complex
• Modeling “position of every street sign” is not feasible.

27
Illustration ..

28
 Link Budget Design Using Path
Loss Models
• A calculation of signal powers, noise powers,
and/or signal-to-noise ratios for a complete
communication link is called link budget.
• It is a useful approach to the basic design of a
complete communication system.
‣ The performance of any communication link
depends on the quality of the equipment being
used.
‣ Link budget is a way of quantifying the link
performance.
Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Models continued--
----------
‣ The received power in a link is determined by
three factors: transmit power, transmitting
antenna gain, and receiving antenna gain.
‣ If that power, minus the free space loss of the
link path, is greater than the minimum
received signal level of the receiving radio,
then a link is possible.
‣ The difference between the minimum received
signal level and the actual received power is
called the link margin.
Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Models
continued------------
• Practical path loss estimation techniques are
given below:
1. Log-distance Path Loss Model
2. Log normal Shadowing
Log-distance Path Loss Model:
• Both theoretical and measurement based
propagation models indicate that average
received signal power decreases
logarithmically with distance
Link Budget Design Using Path Loss
Models continued------------
• Log-distance Path Loss Model continued-------
• The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary
T-R separation is expressed as a function of
distance by using path loss exponent, n
Link Budget Design Using Path Loss
Models continued------------
• Log-distance Path Loss Model continued-------
• Where n is the path loss exponent which
indicates the rate at which the path loss
increases with distance.
Is the reference distance which is determined
from measurements close to the transmitter .
•d is the T-R separation distance
• The bars in the above equations denote the
ensemble average of all possible path loss values
for a given value of d .
Link Budget Design Using Path Loss
Models continued------------
• Log-distance Path Loss Model continued-------
• The Path Loss exponents for different
environments is shown below
Link Budget Design Using Path Loss
Models continued------------
• Log-normal Shadowing:
• Log-normal Shadowing implies that the measured
signal levels at a specific T-R separation have a
normal (Gaussian) distribution about the distance.
• Measurements have shown that at any value of ‘d’
the path loss PL(d) at a particular location is
random and distributed log-normally(normal in
dB) about the mean distance.
 Link Budget Design Using Path Loss
Models continued------------
• Log-normal Shadowing continued--------
• That is as shown below

•Thus the close in reference distance do, the path loss

exponent n and standard deviation σ statistically
describe the path loss model for an arbitrary location
having specific T-R separation distance.
 Out Door Propagation Models
• There are many empirical Outdoor propagation
models such as Longley-Rice model, Durkin’s
model, Okumura model, Hata model, and so on.
• Longley-Rice Model:
• Longley-Rice model is the most commonly used
model with in a frequency band of 40MHz to
100GHz over different terrains.
• Certain modifications over the rudimentary
model like an extra urban factor (UF) due to an
urban clutter near the receiver are also included
in this model.
Longley-Rice Model continued---------
• The Longley- Rice model is also available as a
computer program to calculate large scale
transmission loss relative to free space loss over
irregular terrain for frequencies between 20MHz
to 10GHz.
• The Longley- Rice model operates in two modes
a) When a detailed terrain path profile is available
the prediction is called point to point mode
prediction.
b) If the terrain path profile is not available, the
prediction is called area mode prediction.
 Okumura Model
• It is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban
areas, and it is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920
MHz
• Based totally on measurements (not analytical calculations)
• Applicable in the range: 150MHz to ~ 2000MHz, 1km to 100km T-R
separation, Antenna heights of 30m to 100m
 Okumura Model
• The major disadvantage with the model is its low response to rapid
changes in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in urban areas, but
not as good in rural areas.
• Common standard deviations between predicted and measured path loss
values are around 10 to 14 dB.
 hte 
• G(hre)： G ( hte )  20 log   1000 m  hte  30 m
 200 

 hre 
G ( hre )  10 log   hre  3 m
 3 

 hre 
G ( hre )  20 log   10 m  hre  3 m
 3 
 Hata Model
•The Hata model is a radio propagation model for
predicting the path loss of cellular transmissions in
exterior environments, valid for microwave frequencies
from 150 to 1500 MHz.

•It is an empirical formulation based on the data from

the Okumura Model, and is thus also commonly referred
to as the Okumura–Hata model.

The following classification was used by Hata:

 Hata Model
■Urban area LdB  A  B log d  E
■Suburban area LdB  A  B log d  C
■Open area LdB  A  B log d  D

A  69 .55  26 .16 log f  13 .82 hb

B  44 .9  6 .55 log hb
C  2 (log( f / 28)) 2  5 .4
D  4 .78 log( f / 28) 2  18 .33 log f  40 .94
E  3 .2 (log( 11 .75 hm )) 2  4 .97 for large cities, f  300 MHz
E  8 .29 (log( 1 .54 hm )) 2  1 .1 for large cities, f  300 MHz
E  (1 .11 log f  0 .7 ) hm  (1 .56 log f  0 .8 ) for medium to small cities
 Indoor Propagation Models
• The distances covered are much smaller
• The variability of the environment is much greater
• Key variables: layout of the building, construction
materials, building type, where the antenna
mounted, …etc.

• The losses between floors of a building are determined

by the external dimensions and materials of the
building, as well as the type of construction used to
create the floors and the external surroundings.

• Floor attenuation factor (FAF)

 Partition losses inside a floor(intra-floor)
• Internal and external structure of a building formed
by partitions and obstacles vary widely.
• partitions that are formed as a part of building
structure are called Hard partitions.
• partitions that can be moved and which do not
span to the ceiling are called Soft partitions.
• Partitions vary widely in physical and electrical
characteristics, making it difficult to apply general
models to specific indoor installations.
Partition losses between floors
Partition losses between floors
 Log-distance Path Loss Model
• The exponent
n depends on
the
surroundings
and building
type
– X is the
variable in dB
having a
standard
deviation .
PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 )  10n log( d /d 0 )  X 
THE END