Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
 Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state,equilibrium, process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.

2
 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.
• The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
• Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle. Energy cannot be created
• The first law asserts that energy is a or destroyed; it can only
thermodynamic property. change forms (the first law).
3
• The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as well
as quantity, and actual processes occur
in the direction of decreasing quality of
energy.
• Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual Conservation of energy
particles. principle for the human body.

• It provides a direct and easy way to the

solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
• Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
• It is used in this text only in the
Heat flows in the direction of
supporting role.
decreasing temperature. 4
 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions,
• while others such as velocity V, energy E,
and volume V are expressed in terms of the
primary dimensions and are called
secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.

5
 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.

• English system: It has no apparent

systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily, which makes it confusing and
difficult to learn.
• 12 in= 1 ft
• 1 mile= 5280 ft
• 4qt= gal

6
 Some SI and English Units
lbm= pound mass

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 cal = 4.1868 J branches of engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

lbf=pound force

The definition of the force units.

7
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
terms in an equation
must have the same unit.

8
Unity Conversion Ratios
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations
of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity

conversion ratios as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and
thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any
calculation to properly convert units. 9
CLASSIFICATION
Statistical and Classical Thermodynamics
• Statistical Thermodynamics is microscopic approach in which,
the matter is assumed to be made of numerous individual
molecules. Deals with structure and properties of matter on an
atomic/molecular level; studied and used by physicists and
chemists.
• Requires advanced statistical and mathematical model from
large number of variables.
CLASSIFICATION
Statistical and Classical Thermodynamics
• Classical thermodynamics is macroscopic approach. Here, the
matter is considered to be a continuum without any concern to
its atomic structure. Properties are taken as average
• Nothing is examine at atomic or molecular level. Applicable
in large systems. Such as, engines, power plants, refrigerators;
studied and used by engineers.
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside
the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.

• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed
amount of mass,
and no mass
can cross its
boundary.
12
 • Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a
control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
13
inlet and one exit.
 PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be either
intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that are
independent of the mass of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and
density.
• Extensive properties: Those whose
values depend on the size of the
system. Such as, total volume, total
mass
• Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass. Such as, Criterion to differentiate intensive
specific volume (v=V/m)
and extensive properties.
14
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Here R is
Rankine scale

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.

15
 Temperature Scales
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is independent
of the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI)
• Rankine scale (English system)

• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the
freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the steam point.
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with
vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F).
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).

16
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance at
Specific volume a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
17
Thermodynamic State

• When a system does not undergo any change,

all the properties have fixed values. This
condition is known as a thermodynamic state
OR
• A state of system is defined by value of its
properties.
 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature
is the same throughout the entire
system. E.g., Put a hot rod in a glass of
water A system at two different states.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no
change in pressure , force at any point of
the system with time.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not
change with time, that is, no chemical
reactions occur.

• A system will not be in equilibrium unless all

the relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied
A closed system reaching thermal
equilibrium. 19
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all
times.

20
• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.

• Cycle: A process during which the

initial and final states are identical. A
system return to its initial state at the
end of a process.

The P-V diagram of a compression

process.

21
The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
change with time. The opposite
of steady is unsteady, or
transient.
• A large number of engineering
devices operate for long
During a steady-
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are flow process, fluid
classified as steady-flow properties within
devices. the control
• Steady-flow process: A volume may
process during which a fluid change with
flows through a control volume position but not
steadily. with time.
• Steady-flow conditions can be
closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such as
turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or
refrigeration systems.
• Reciprocation engines flow is
not steady. Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
and energy contents of a control volume 22
remain constant.
PRESSURE
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area

1 psi = 6894.76 Pa
Some basic
The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the feet
pressure
of a chubby person is much greater than on
gages.
the feet of a slim person.
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure. Example, tyre pressure
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

24
25
Variation of Pressure with Depth

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
result of added weight). 26
Variation of Pressure with Depth
Consider a fluid at rest. The density of the
fluid is given by ρ.
Let us consider a rectangular fluid
element of height “h” and area of “A”.
Force on the bottom of the cylinder due to
mass is given by
F= mg
Where, m = density * volume
m=ρ*v
m=ρ*A*h

Hence,
F= ρ * A * h * g P total = P atm + P gage
The pressure due to this force is

P = F/A = ρ * A * h * g/ A

P = ρ * g* h
P gage = ρ * g * h
27
• Thus, we conclude that the
pressure difference between two points in a constant
density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance z
between the points and the density rho(p) of the
fluid.
• In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly
with depth. This
is what a diver experiences when diving deeper in a
lake.

28
 In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.

Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by the
same fluid.
29
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Using a hydraulic car jack with

a piston area ratio of A2/A1
10,
For example,
a person can lift a 1000-kg car
by applying a force of just
100 kgf ( 981 N).
Lifting of a large weight by a small force
30
by the application of Pascal’s law.
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across a
flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is  gh. 31
•A Piezometer is used for measuring pressure inside a vessel or pipe in
which liquid is there.
• A tube may be attached to the walls of the container (or pipe) in which
the liquid resides so that liquid can rise in the tube.
• By determining the height to which liquid rises and using the relation p1
= ρgh, gauge pressure of the liquid can be determined.
•It is important that the opening of the device is to be tangential to any
fluid motion, otherwise an erroneous reading will result.
32
33
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
• - It is a device used for measuring the
difference of pressures, between two points
in a pipe, or in two different pipes.
37
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
• Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube
bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
• Pressure transducers: Use various techniques
to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance,
or capacitance.
• Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
• Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in
a crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.

Various types of Bourdon tubes used

38
to measure pressure.
 THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
The basic barometer.
39
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
• Step 1: Problem Statement
• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

EES (Engineering Equation Solver) (Pronounced as ease):

EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically. It has a large
library of built-in thermodynamic property functions as well as
mathematical functions. Unlike some software packages, EES
does not solve engineering problems; it only solves the equations
supplied by the user. 40
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If object A is in thermal
equilibrium with object C, and
object B is separately in
thermal equilibrium with object
C, then objects A and B will be
in thermal equilibrium if they
are placed in thermal contact.
42