BUILDING SCIENCE

AIM
TO STUDY THE EVOLUTION OF THE
TEMPLE COMPLEX .
OBJECTIVES
1. Present a study of the concept of a Hindu temple ,its evolution, development
of its architectural styles along their materials of construction with the main
focus on Nagara or ‘north indian style’ and Dravidian or the ‘south indian style’
2. Studying the material characteristic, construction techniques and process
involved in the construction of a Hindu temple.
 METHODOLOGY TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
LITERATURE STUDY CASE STUDY

TO STUDY EXISTING

TO STUDY ABOUT THE
TEMPLE COMPLEX, ITS
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
ELEVATION AND
COMPLEX IN TEMPLES.
CONSTRUCTION

DOCUMENTATION OF CULTURAL
EXAMPLES OF TEMPLE ACTIVITIES HAPPENING ON SPECIAL
COMPLEXES OCASSIONS
STUDY OF THE MAIN FEATURES LOCAL TRADITIONS AND
OF TEMPLES w.r.t. STYLES. FESTIVALS WHICH INFLUENCE THE
CHARACTERSTIC FEATURES ARCHITECTURE
AND SPATIAL ORGANISATION DOES THE THE TEMPLE COMPLEX
FULFIL ACTIVITY?
LIMITATIONS
The scope of this dissertation is mainly the Nagara
‘north Indian style’ and the Dravidian ‘south Indian
style’ temple architecture, the two major forms of
temple architecture styles.
Jain and Buddhist temples are not included as they are
not fundamentally different from the Hindu temple
architecture in that they differ in the iconography
rather than form and style.
The study is primarily limited to temple construction
in stone and not those built with other materials like
wood and brick.
Scope
The Hindu temples of India has been a subject of study for numerous historians,
religious scholars, art historians, photojournalists, archaeologists, architects
and other professionals. There is scope for much study on Hindu temples in
different regions of India not just based on the iconography, form and
transformation but more on their building technology and structural
analysis..Some studies have been undertaken. For example it is known that
numerous temples have fallen due to different calamities from time to time, yet
there are even today examples of temple which haven’t fallen either due to
earthquake or cyclone or other natural calamity as because these temple were
constructed in the form of an interlocking system as per laid out in the ancient
manuals. Therefore these structure tend to vibrates along with the earth’s
vibrations, and will sway but not fall under any circumstances during
earthquakes or cyclones. Therefore there is scope for further understanding of
the structural aspects of Hindu temple and it can be a subject of more
structural analysis like safety analysis and stability analysis of structures
including calculation of the maximum average stress at the foundation and
columns, the thrust analysis of the sikhara, and post & lintel etc
HINDUISM AND ITS RELEVANCE
TO ARCHITECTURE
 “Hinduism is not a sole religion, it is the collection of costumes
of various religions which are native and predominant in India,
does not believe in any one philosophic concept or any single
God, thus may be broadly described as a way of life.”
 The main purpose of the early building art in the Indian subcontinent
was the representation of the existing religious perception of the
people in a tangible form. Therefore early Indian architecture in the
form of various sacred monuments is essentially a representation of its
religious beliefs. The earliest significant known buildings relate to
Buddhism and Jainism.
 Hinduism is the oldest and among one of the largest religious
traditions practiced till date. It has flourished for over two thousand
years in many parts of Asia covering Indian subcontinent, the
peripheral subHimalayan valleys and major parts of south–east Asia. It
spread as religious, social and political force during this period. Even
though the remnant of Hindu culture are seen throughout the
south9east Asia, India, Nepal and Bali are most predominantly Hindu.
 introduction
 THE HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu temples commonly known as Mandir in Hindi and

derived from the Sanskrit word Mandira, are identified by
several names in different parts of India as Koil or kovil in
Tamil, devasthana in Kanada and devalaya, in Telugu etc.
Hindu temple structure can either be isolated structure or a
part of complex.
The character of Hindu temples reflected local architecture
styles and the material and skills to which they related.
The main forms and styles of the Hindu temple were
established during 600-800 AD. The cell or shrine, the
garbhagriha(usually square in plan), housed the image and
was approached through a columniated porch or mandapa.
THE HINDU TEMPLE
The shrine was roofed with a pyramidal spire or
vertically attenuated dome like structure known as
sikhara.
The temple as a whole was raised on a massive plinth
and was often surrounded by subsidiary shrines and by
an enclosing wall pierced by one or more gigantic
gateway towers or gopurams.
It is the outline and detailing of the Sikhara and other
roof forms which determine the character of
monumental Hindu architecture and give a formal as
opposed to historical basis for it classification.
THE HINDU TEMPLE
 The architecture of temples varies across India, however
while the basic elements of the temple are the same, the
form and scale varied.
 For example as in the case of the architectural elements
like Sikhara (pyramidical roofs) and Gopurams(the
gateways).
 This following section describes the evolution of the
temple and the development of their architectural styles
along their materials of construction.
THE HINDU TEMPLE
 It was the later half of the 7th century that the Hindu
temple structures of India began to acquire a definite
form.
 The common elements of a Hindu temple which are
known in their original sanskrit words are as follows:
 The sanctuary as whole is known as the Vimana that
consists of two parts. The upper part of the Vimana is
called as the Sikhara and the lower portion inside the
Vimana is called as the Garbhagriha (cella or inner
chamber).
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
 Indian temples have been a source of attraction, not only as
a place of worship for the devout, but also as an
architectural marvel for the curious tourist.
 Indian temples with its imposing towers, intricate carvings
and awe inspiring size were in fact the result of a gradual
evolution over time.
 In the Vedic period (1500 to 500 BC) there were actually no
temples as such. They propitiated the Gods by performing
yagas using sacrificial altars.
 Details of how such altars may be constructed where
meticulously mentioned in The SULVASUTRA (literally
meaning ‘the rules of the cord’). These YAGYASHALAS later
got transformed to temples.
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
 Earliest temples were made of timber and clay, and though they were
later replaced by the more enduring granite, there are still temples in
Kerala and Dakshina Karnataka made with timber and which has
withstood the ravages of time.
 Cave temples which are found in profusion particularly in Central
India, were a later innovation. Though the basic temple patterns are the
same, temple styles fall into two categories. North Indian style called
NAGARA and southern style called DRAVIDIAN. There is a derivative
of the above two styles which is called VESARA.
 So the people started to worship these deities in the cave temples. The
earliest example of this kind was a cave temple that was built in around
400 B.C. at Bhaje containing images of learned Parasurama with Indra
and Surya. After this came the turn of stone temples, as brick and wood
were perishable materials.
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
 NAGARA STYLE
 NAGARA style temples have curvilinear towers as against
DRAVIDIAN temples which have truncated pyramids. The
derivative style VESARA is a combination of both NAGARA
and DRAVIDIAN type of architecture.
 NAGARA style temple architecture originated during the
Gupta period (320 -650 AD) and is found mostly in North
and Central India. The temple complexes at TIGAWA (In
modern MADHYA PRADESH), NACHNA in RAJASTHAN
and DEOGARH in UTTAR PRADESH are examples of this.
The major developments in temple architecture were
during the following periods.
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
 750 – 1250 AD in Orissa
 950 – 1050 AD in Central India
 10th to 11th Century in Rajasthan and
 11th to 13th Century in Gujarat.
 Some of temples worth seeing are LINGARAJA temple
at Bhubaneshwar, JAGANNATHA temple in Puri,
SURYA temple at Konarak.
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
 DRAVIDIAN STYLE
 The southern style DRAVIDIAN temples had its genesis
during the age of the PALLAVAS of Kanchipuram (600 -850
AD) and later developed by the CHALUKYAS of Badami
and PANDYAS of Madurai. The temple complexes at
MAMMALAPURAM (earlier known as
MAHABALIPURAM) IN Tamil nadu, LAKDHAN temple in
Aihole and Kasinatha temple in Pattadakkal are examples
of this style of architecture. The evolution of Southern
temples were as follow:
 600 -850 AD in Tamil nadu during the period of the
Pallavas ( rock cut and RATHA style temples of
Mahabalipuram, Kailasanatha and Vaikunta Perumal
temples of Kanchipuram)
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
 900 – 850 in Tamil Nadu during the Chola dynasty (
Brihadeeshwara and Srirangam temples)
 1336 – 1565 during the period of the Vijayagara empire in
Karnataka (Pampavati and Sri Vithala temples at Hampi)
 1600 to 1700 during the Nayaks of Madurai. (Enlarged the
existing Meenakshi temple complex by making it ornate and
adding pillared corridors)
 The VESARA style temples were influenced by the Buddhist
apsidal chapels and evolved during the period the Later
CHALUKYAS.
 If the ancient YAGASALAS or RIG VEDIC times were based on
the SULVASUTRAS the later temple complexes were based on
VASTU SASTRA which had it sources from such diverse
scriptures as the SUTRAS, PURANAS, AGAMAS and TANTRIC
literature.
PARTS OF HINDU TEMPLE
1. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire. It is the
pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which
represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest
mountain peak. The shape and the size of the tower vary
from region to region.
2. ‘Garbhagriha’meaning the womb chamber. It is nucleus
and the innermost chamber of the temple where the
image or idol of the deity is placed. The chamber is
mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its
eastern side. The visitors are not allowed inside the
Garbhagriha in most of the temples, only the priests
perform the rituals and worship.
3.‘Pradakshina path’ meaning the ambulatory passageway
for circumambulation. It consists of enclosed corridor
carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees
walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship
ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess.
4. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha,
for the assembly of the devotees. It is used by the
devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the
priests performing the rituals. It is also known as
‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing, where
in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed.
In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an
isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary.
5. ‘Antarala’ meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber. It
unites the main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple.
6. ‘Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance
of the temple leading to the mandapa.
 Some other essential elements found in the Hindu temples are
7. ‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the
entrance of the temple complex, specially found in south India.
8. ‘Pitha’, the plinth or the platform of the temple.
9. ‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in
north Indian temple and
10. The ‘Amalaka’ the fluted disc like stone placed at the apex of
the sikhar.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
The Indian temples were built with all types of materials depending upon the availability from
region to region. The range of material varied from timber to mud, plaster, brick and
stone during all periods and throughout India. The materials play an important role in
the overall appearance, construction techniques and monumental character of these
temples.
As the earlier structures were fashioned from less durable materials such as timber, brick and
plaster the early examples of Hindu architecture and art have mostly disappeared or are
detectable only by the most fragmentary remains. However some of the relief carvings and
paintings show that the earlier Hindu temples were constructed in timber and bamboo.
Many of the later stone temples were modelled on wood and bamboo architecture is apparent
from the carvings, roof forms and window shapes. This usage of timber and bamboo governs
the form of temples mostly in the Himalayan valleys and regions of Kerala and Bengal.
The remains of temples constructed in brick dates back to the centuries before the Christian era.
The brick and mortar temples were constructed in the region were there was easy availability of
brick and the availability of suitable stone were limited.
The construction of temple in stone is the most distinctive expression of Hindu architecture. The
highly evolved techniques of excavating and cutting blocks of stone constitute one of the major
technical achievements associated with the history of the Hindu temple (Michell, 1988).
The construction in stone dates back to 2nd and 3rd centuries in the form of rock cut sanctuaries
and later in the form of temples with use of stones like granite, marble, soap stone, sandstone
and locally available stones. The stones were used with most intricate and ornate carvings and
sculptors throughout India.
MEENAKSHI TEMPLE
 Location: Madurai, Tamil Nadu
 Built By: Kulashekarar Pandyan
 Architectural Style: Dravidian
 Dedicated To: Meenakshi (Goddess Parvati) and
Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva)
 Tradition: Shaivism
 Major Festival: Tirukalyanam Festival / Chithirai
Thiruvizha
STORY BEHIND THE TEMPLE
 Meenakshi Amman Temple, also known as Minakshi-
Sundareshwara Temple, is one of the oldest and most
important temples in India. Located in the city of
Madurai, the temple has a great mythological and
historical significance. It is believed that Lord Shiva
assumed the form of Sundareswarar (the handsome
one) and married Parvati (Meenakshi) at the site
where the temple is currently located.
 According to a legend, Meenakshi emerged out of a ‘Yajna’
(sacred fire) as a three-year-old girl. The ‘Yajna’ was
performed by a king named Malayadwaja Pandya along
with his wife Kanchanamalai.
 Since the royal couple had no child, the King offered his
prayers to Lord Shiva, requesting him to grant them a son.
But to their dismay, a triple-breasted girl emerged from the
sacred fire. When Malayadwaja and his wife expressed their
concern over the girl’s abnormal appearance, a divine voice
ordered them not to fret over the girl’s physical appearance.
 They were also informed that the girl’s third breast will
disappear as soon as she meets her future husband. The
relieved King named her Meenakshi and in due course
crowned her as his successor.
 Meenakshi ruled over the ancient city of Madurai and also went
on to capture the neighboring kingdoms. Legend has it that she
even captured Indralok, the abode of Lord Indra, and was on her
way to capture Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva, as well.
 When Shiva appeared before her, Meenakshi’s third breast
disappeared and she knew that she had met her better half.
Shiva and Meenakshi returned to Madurai where their wedding
took place. It is said that the wedding was attended by all the
gods and goddesses.
 Since Parvati herself had assumed the form of Meenakshi, Lord
Vishnu, Parvati’s brother, handed her over to Lord Shiva. Even
today, the wedding ceremony is celebrated every year as
‘Chithirai Thiruvizha’ which is also known as ‘Tirukalyanam’ (the
grand wedding).
DYNASTIES OF SOUTH INDIA
 CHOLA DYNASTY
 CHERA DYNASTY
 PANDYA DYNASTY
 PALLAVA DYNASTY
 SATVAHANA DYNASTY
 KADAMBA DYNASTY
 CHALUKYA DYNASTY
 GANDAS OF TALAKAD
 RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE
 WESTERN CHALUKYA EMPIRE
 HOYSALA DYNASTY
 KAKATIYAS DYNASTY
 MUSUNURI DYNASTY
 REDDY DYNASTY
RULING DYNASTIES
 The Satavahanas (220 B.C. – 236 A.D.):
 also known as the Andhras.
 were a Dravidian race, now represented by Telugus, living
between the estuaries of Godavari and Krishna rivers.
 In the days of Chandragupta Maurya, the Satavahanas
monarchs were very powerful.
 One of their great rulers was Satkarni, who was a great
conqueror. He fought against the king of Kalinga.
 The Satavahana kings were among those who were
brought under the “Law of Piety” by Asoka.
The Satavahanas were orthodox Hindus, but not
intolerant of other religions. Many people in the
Deccan had been converted by Asoka’s missionaries to
Buddhism, but there was no antagonism between the
two religions.
The Satavahana kings patronised Buddhism also.
Under them Brahmanism and Buddhism flourished
side by side.
RULING DYNASTIES
 Chalukyas:
The Chalukyas wielded power in the Deccan from the
sixth to eight century A.D. and then again form 10th to
12th centuries.
Pulakesin 1 was the first great Chalukya ruler.
He set up his capital at Badami (or Vatapi) in Bijapur
distt. about 550 A.D.
His grandson, Pulakesin II (A.D. 608-42) was a mighty
warrior, who soon reduced to submission practically
the whole of the old Andhra kingdom.
He was a very capable ruler. He was a contemporary of
Harsha of Kanauj, and when Harsha tried to invade
Deccan, Pulakesin defeated him. The Narmada was
the boundary between the two kingdoms.
Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveller, paid a visit to
Deccan 641 A.D and was profoundly impressed by the
benevolent rule of Pulakesin. Pulakesin’s fame was
such that it reached Khusru II, King of Persia.
Pulakesin sent ambassadors to Khusru and exchanged
letters and presents with him.
RULING DYNASTIES
 The Pallavas:
The Pallavas, entrenched in the country between the
Krishna and Cauvery, invaded the Chalukya kingdom
while the bulk of the Chalukya forces were in the
north.
The Pallava king Narasimhavaran savagely destroyed
Badami, putting the inhabitants to the sword.
Pulakesin was killed.
After his death the Chalukya Empire began to fall to
pieces. For about 12 years the Deccan was in a state of
anarchy. But afterwards it partially recovered.
In 674 the Chalukya king Vikramaditya took Kanchi,
the Pallava capital. The struggle went on, with varying
fortunes, until A.D. 757, when Chalukyas, who had
now split into a number of dynasties, were again
overthrown, this time by Rashtrakutas.
RULING DYNASTIES
• Rashtrakutas:
The Rashtrakutas, who overthrew the Chalukyas in
A.D 757, were an indigenous race.
They were the descendents of the feudatory nobles
who governed a portion of Deccan under the
Satavahanas.
One of the earliest of the Rashtrakutas kings, Krishana
I, was responsible for making the famous Kailasa
temple at Ellora.
The most famous of the Rashtrakuta kings was
Amoghavarsha (A.D 815-77) or Vallabha Rai.
The Rashtrakuta empire at the time of its greatest
power stretched from sea to sea and was very
prosperous.
It included the greater part of Bombay Presidency and
was visited by Arabian travellers and merchants.
The Rashtrakutas wee overthrown in A.D. 973.
RULING DYNASTIES
 Chalukyas of Kalyani:
From A.D. 973 to 1200 Deccan was governed by a
restored branch of Chalukyas with their capital at
Kalyani.
Vikramaditya who ruled from A.D. 1076 to 1126, was
the most famous king of this dynasty.
The most important event of this period was the rise,
in about A.D. 1167, of the reformed Hindu sect known
as the Vira-Shaivas or Lingayats.
RULING DYNASTIES
• Hoysalas:
The Hoysalas were a Mysore family.
Their capital was Dorasamudra or modern Halebid.
Bittiga was the first ruler of this line. He was a great
conqueror. He was an ardent devotee of the Jain
religion.
He built many Jain temples which were destroyed in
wars. But his successor named Vishnuvardhana was
converted to the worship of Vishnu by the celebrated
philosopher Ramanuja, and built many magnificent
temples at Halebid and Belur.
HISTORY OF TEMPLE AND ROLE OF
DYNASTIES IN ITS CONSTRUCTION-
 The history of Meenakshi Temple dates back to the 1st
century C.E with scholars claiming it to be as old as the city
itself. It is said that Kulashekarar Pandyan, a king who
ruled over the Pandyan dynasty, built the temple as per the
instructions given in his dream by Lord Shiva.
 A few religious texts that belong to the 1st to 4th century
C.E talk about the temple and describe it as the central
structure of the city. Texts dating back to the early 6th
century, describe the temple as a place where scholars met
to discuss important topics.
 The temple as it stands today, however, was rebuilt
throughout the 16th century as it was destroyed by the
Muslim invaders.
 During the 14th century C.E, Malik Kafur, a commander of Delhi
Sultanate, led his army into most parts of southern India and
looted many temples including the famed Meenakshi Temple.
Valuables, such as gold, silver and precious gems were taken to
Delhi.
 Since temples in those days had abundance of valuables, most of
the temples were destroyed and were left in ruins. When the
Vijayanagar Empire took over Madurai after defeating the
Muslim Sultanate, the temple was rebuilt and reopened.
 The temple was further expanded during the late 16th century
and early 17th century by Vishwanatha Nayakar, a king of the
Nayaka dynasty. According to researchers, while rebuilding the
temple, the rulers of Nayaka dynasty followed the architectural
style of ‘Silpa Shastras.’ ‘Silpa Shastras’ are a set of architectural
laws found in the ancient texts.
 The temple was once again expanded by Thirumalai Nayak
who ruled over Madurai from 1623 to 1655. During his
reign, many ‘Mandapams’ (pillared halls) were built.
 The temple was then expanded by many later Nayaka rulers
before the advent of the British East India Company. The
temple was once again degraded and parts of it were
destroyed during the British Rule.
 In 1959, the restoration work was started by Tamil Hindus
by collecting donations and by collaborating with
historians and engineers. The temple was completely
restored in 1995.
TEMPLE STRUCTURE
 The temple occupies a huge area in the heart of Madurai as
it spreads over 14 acres. The temple is enclosed with huge
walls, which were built in response to the invasions.
 The entire structure, when viewed from above, represents a
mandala. A mandala is a structure built according to the
laws of symmetry and loci. There are various shrines built
within the temple complex.
 Apart from the two main shrines, which are dedicated to
Sundareswarar and Meenakshi, the temple has shrines
dedicated to various other deities like Ganesha and
Murugan. The temple also houses goddesses Lakshmi,
Rukmini, and Saraswati.
 The temple also has a consecrated pond named
‘Porthamarai Kulam.’ The term ‘Potramarai Kulam’ is a
literal translation of ‘pond with a golden lotus.’
 The structure of a golden lotus is placed at the center
of the pond. It is said that Lord Shiva blessed this
pond and declared that no marine life would grow in
it.
 In the Tamil folklore, the pond is believed to be an
evaluator for reviewing the worth of any new
literature.
 The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each
other. Apart from the four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that
serve as gateways to a number of shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways.
Each one of them is a multi-storey structure and displays thousands of mythological
stories and several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the temple are listed below:
 Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses
Goddess Meenakshi. The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the mid-16th
century. The ‘gopuram’ has five storeys.
 Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and was
built by Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the Sundareswarar
(Lord Shiva) shrine.
 Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts the
religious and secular essence of Hinduism.
 Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads to
the Ganesha shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines.
 Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the other
gateways. Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three centuries.
 Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530. The
‘gopuram’ is astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai Gopuram.’
 The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls
were built by various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for
pilgrims and devotees. Some of the most important ‘mandapams’ are given
below:
 Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’
The hall, which was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is
supported by 985 pillars. Each and every pillar is sculpted magnificently and
has images of Yali, a mythological creature.
 Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house
hundreds of parrots. The parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to
say ‘Meenakshi’. The hall, which is next to the Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures
of characters from Mahabharata.
 Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight
goddesses. Built by two queens, the hall is placed in between the main
‘gopuram’ and the gateway that leads to the Meenakshi shrine.
 Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar.
The hall is supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue.
WAY TO SUNDRESHWAR SHRINE
PUDU-MANDAPAM
WAY TO MEENAKSHI SHRINE
SWARNA PUSHKARINI
1000 PILLAR CORRIDOR