BUILDING SERVICES Semester four

Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water

include agricultural, Industrial, house hold,  recreational and environmental activities.
The majority of human uses require fresh water.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface.  It is vital for all known forms of life.
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly
over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers  and polar ice caps
Surfaces
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, but 97% of it has too high a salt content
(salinity) to be drunk by living beings or used in agriculture.
Fresh water thus only represents 3% of the total quantity of water. Some 70% of this is
trapped in the polar ice-caps. Rivers, lakes and marshes only represent 1% of the total
water on Earth. The remainder is underground water.
Sea water and ice represent 99.35% of all water on the planet Earth. The remainder is
underground water, and that in streams, rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere.
Some 60% of rainwater evaporates and forms clouds; 25% penetrates the soil, and 15%
flows into rivers and lakes.
The Earth's atmosphere contains 13,000 million tonnes of water. This is equal to a layer
of water 2.5 cm deep, covering the entire surface of the Earth.
We use a lot of water for our daily needs. Here are the quantities of water required
for domestic use (mean values for a European citizen; in some countries the
quantities are less because of stricter regulations)

The following norms are being adopted by the Government for the rural water supply
schemes. Provision of 40 litres of water per day per capita is aimed at in the rural
areas currently.
Purpose Quantity (LPCD)
Drinking 3 Cooking 5
Bathing 15 Washing utensils & house 7 Ablution 10
World Water Forum in Kyoto prepared a document on water entitled WATER, AN
ESSENTIAL ELEMENT FOR LIFE.

Starting from the point that water plays

a central and critical role in all aspects
of life, analysed water
1. social good - Water for Food and
Rural Development
Eg : Agriculture, farmers ,  poverty,
Lands that have been damaged by
waterlogging and salinization
Safe Drinking Water,
Health and Sanitation

Eg : Three crucial concerns are present

in the relationship between water and
health: managing quantity constraints
faced by water-poor countries and their
impact on human activities; the
maintenance of water quality in the
face of growing demand; and the direct
link between health and water as
pertains to diseases.
Management of water quantity can be The problem of maintaining and
carried out by revising the allocation improving water quality is especially acute
of water to different users. Better in the more urbanized areas, predominantly
maintenance and repair of existing in developing countries. This is most often
water systems can often significantly hampered by a failure to enforce pollution
increase the water supply. controls at the main point source and the
Water conservation methods such as inadequacy of sanitation systems and of
rainwater harvesting, fog Most of the diseases that
garbage collection and contaminate
disposal. water
condensation and underground dams come from animal or human waste and are
should be studied for use where communicable. These diseases have health
appropriate along with stabilization effects that are heavily concentrated in the
ponds for wastewater and treatment developing world, and poor urban populations.
technology for the Wastewater is often the medium through which
Water shortages canuse of wastewater
be substantially overcome through
these can further
affect development and use of
human.
for irrigation.
treated urban wastewater for use in agriculture.
Peace and/or Conflict
Growing pressure due to increasing demand Private Sector Engagement and Privatisation
for water can be a source of conflict. When
water is scarce, competition for limited Water by its very nature cannot be treated as a
supplies has lead nations to see water as a mere commodity among other commodities.
matter of national or regional security. History
provides ample evidence of competition and
disputes over shared fresh water resources.
AN ECONOMIC GOOD
The Economics of Water
The economics of water is one of the most
important aspects of water resource
management that needs to be balanced with
cultural and social concerns. The concept of
treating water as an economic good is valid
but the practice of doing so can be
Water and Energy
challenging
Hydroelectric power is an important source
of clean energy. It provides approximately
twenty percent of total electricity production
worldwide and brings notable economic and
environmental benefits.
AN ENVIRONMENTAL GOOD Disaster Mitigation and Risk
while briefly treating a limited number of Management
other issues impacting water. In
concluding, the text highlighted the central A people centred pro-poor policy on water
role of the human being in caring for the management must address the question of
environment and its constitutive elements. water related hazards such as floods,
ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND droughts, desertification, tropical storms,
SANITATION erosion and various kinds of pollution.
Conventional forms of centralised Many so called natural disasters are in fact
sanitation are coming under increasing man made in their roots, due to
criticism due to huge operating and inadequate attention to the environment
maintenance costs but more importantly and the consequences of human actions or
their high water consumption and the indeed inaction. Once again, it is the poor
OTHER ISSUES
groundwater IMPACTING
pollution that canWATER
result. SUPPLY who suffer most when they are exposed to
such dangers
 Population,
 Politics,
 Right to water,
 poverty
Quality of water: impurities in water, drinking water standards- physical, chemical
and biological analysis.
Rain water harvesting, storm water collection, computation of storm water runoff.
Ground water recharging- sustainability of local natural water systems (brief
description only).
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of water.  It
is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be assessed.
The most common standards used to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of
human contact, and drinking water.
Human consumption
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and 
bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from
industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants. Water
quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion,
industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the
Industrial and domestic use
water)
Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The
most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) which
interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in
water heaters or boilers.
Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium
 cations. Hard water may be preferable to soft water for human consumption, since health problems
have been associated with excess sodium and with calcium and magnesium deficiencies. Softening
decreases nutrition and may increase cleaning effectiveness.Various industries' wastes and effluents can
also pollute the water quality in receiving bodies of water.

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as 
lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different
environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and high populations
of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation,
swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which
Drinking water indicators
The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational
category

 Alkalinity
 Colour of water
 pH
 Taste and odour (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB), etc.)
 Dissolved metals and salts
(sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)
 Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia
coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia, 
 Bacteriological water analysis
 Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
 Dissolved organics: coloured dissolved organic
matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
 Radon
 Heavy metals
 Pharmaceuticals
 Hormone analogs
ANALYSES OF PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
The parameters analysed to assess the water quality are broadly divided into
Physical parameters: Colour, Temperature, Transparency, Turbidity and Odour

COLOUR:
In natural water, colour is due to the presence of humic acids, fulvic acids, metallic ions, suspended
matter, plankton, weeds and industrial effluents. Colour is removed to make water suitable for general
and industrial applications and is determined by visual comparison of the sample with distilled water
TEMPERATURE:
Impinging solar radiation and atmospheric temperature brings about spatial and temporal changes in
temperature, setting up convection currents and thermal stratification. Temperature plays a very
important role in wetland dynamism affecting the various parameters such as alkalinity, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity etc. In an aquatic system, these parameters affect the
chemical and biological reactions such as solubility of oxygen, carbon-di-oxide-carbonate-bicarbonate
equilibrium, increase in metabolic rate and physiological reactions of organisms, etc. Water temperature
is important in relation to fish life. The temperature of drinking water has an influence on its taste
TRANSPARENCY (LIGHT PENETRATION)
Solar radiation is the major source of light energy in an aquatic system, governing the primary
productivity. Transparency is a characteristic of water that varies with the combined effect of colour and
turbidity. It measures the light penetrating through the water body and is determined using Secchi disc.
TURBIDITY
Turbidity is an expression of optical property; wherein light is scattered by suspended particles present
in water (Tyndall effect) and is measured using a nephelometer. Suspended and colloidal matter such as
clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter; plankton and other microscopic organisms cause
turbidity in water. Turbidity affects light scattering, absorption properties and aesthetic appearance in a
water body. Increase in the intensity of scattered light results in higher values of turbidity
CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

pH
The effect of pH on the chemical and biological properties of liquids makes its determination very
important. It is one of the most important parameter in water chemistry and is defined as -log [H +], and
measured as intensity of acidity or alkalinity on a scale ranging from 0-14. If free H + are more it is
expressed acidic (i.e. pH<7), while more OH- ions is expressed as alkaline (i.e. pH> 7).
In natural waters pH is governed by the equilibrium between carbon dioxide/bicarbonate/carbonate ions
and ranges between 4.5 and 8.5 although mostly basic. It tends to increase during day largely due to the
photosynthetic activity (consumption of carbon-di-oxide) and decreases during night due to respiratory
activity. Waste water and polluted natural waters have pH values lower or higher than 7 based on the
nature of the pollutant.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity (specific conductance) is the numerical expression of the water's ability to conduct an
electric current. It is measured in micro Siemens per cm and depends on the total concentration, mobility,
valence and the temperature of the solution of ions. Electrolytes in a solution disassociate into positive
(cations) and negative (anions) ions and impart conductivity. Most dissolved inorganic substances are in
the ionised form in water and contribute to conductance.

TOTAL SOLIDS:
Total solids is the term applied to the material residue left in the vessel after evaporation of the sample
and its subsequent drying in an oven at a temperature of 103-105 oC. Total solids include Total Suspended
Solids (TSS) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Suspended solids are the portions of solids that are retained on a filter of standard specified size
(generally 2.0 µ) under specific conditions. Water with high-suspended solids is unsatisfactory for
bathing, industrial and other purposes

TOTAL HARDNESS
Hardness is predominantly caused by divalent cations such as calcium, magnesium, alkaline earth metal
such as iron, manganese, strontium, etc. The total hardness is defined as the sum of calcium and
magnesium concentrations, both expressed as CaCO3 in mg/L. Carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium
and magnesium cause temporary hardness. Sulphates and chlorides cause permanent hardness

DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Oxygen dissolved in water is a very important parameter in water analysis as it serves as an indicator of
the physical, chemical and biological activities of the water body. The two main sources of dissolved
oxygen are diffusion of oxygen from the air and photosynthetic activity. Diffusion of oxygen from the air
into water depends on the solubility of oxygen, and is influenced by many other factors like water
movement, temperature, salinity, etc. Photosynthesis, a biological phenomenon carried out by the
autotrophs, depends on the plankton population, light condition, gases, etc. Oxygen is considered to be
the major limiting factor in water bodies with organic materials

BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms for stabilizing
biologically decomposable organic matter (carbonaceous) in water under aerobic conditions. The test is
used to determine the pollution load of wastewater, the degree of pollution and the efficiency of
wastewater treatment methods
BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

PLANKTON ANALYSIS: The physical and chemical characteristics of water affect the abundance,
species composition, stability and productivity of the indigenous populations of aquatic organisms.
The biological methods used for assessing water quality includes collection, counting and
identification of aquatic organisms; biomass measurements; measurements of metabolic activity
rates; toxicity tests; bioaccumulation; bio magnification of pollutants; and processing and
interpretation of biological data. The work involving plankton analysis would help in

1.        Explaining the cause of colour and turbidity and the presence of objectionable odour, tastes
and visible particles in waters
2.        The interpretation of chemical analyses.
3.        Identifying the nature, extent and biological effects of pollution.
4.        Providing data on the status of an aquatic system on a regular basis
Strategies to Combat Water Quality Problems

There are four fundamental strategies to combat water quality problems that can
form the basis of policy solutions for improving water quality
●Prevention of pollution; In cases where contaminants result from domestic, industrial or
●Treatment of polluted agricultural activities', wastewater must be treated before
discharging. Treatment strategies for contaminated water
water;
range along a continuum from high-technology, energy-
●Safe use of wastewater; intensive approaches to low-technology, low-energy,
●Restoration and protection biologically and ecologically focused approaches.
of ecosystems.
Pollution prevention strategies
Where good water distribution and treatment systems are
already in place, constant effort is needed to maintain and
focus on the reduction or
expand their effective operation. Nevertheless,
elimination of waste at the source.
many wastewater treatment facilities are not working due to
Prevention is widely regarded as
deficient human, technical and financial resources for operation
the cheapest, easiest and most
and maintenance.
effective way to protect water
Poorly maintained or operated systems can lead to degradation
quality. Furthermore, not only are
of even high-quality water before it reaches its point of use
there environmental benefits to
preventing or reducing pollution,
there may also be tremendous
financial benefits, as generation of
waste, especially from industrial
and agricultural processes, is a
Rainwater harvesting is a technique used for collecting, storing and using rainwater for
landscape irrigation and other uses. The rainwater is collected from various hard surfaces such as
rooftops and/or other manmade aboveground hard surfaces.
The harvested water can also be used as drinking water, longer-term storage and for other purposes
such as groundwater recharge

Storm water harvesting is the collection, accumulation, treatment or purification, and storing
of storm water for its eventual reuse. It differs from rainwater harvesting as the runoff is collected from
Water that comes in contact with impervious
drains or creeks, rather than roofs.
surfaces becomes polluted and is
denominated surface runoff. As the water travels
more distance over impervious surfaces it collects
an increasing amount of pollutants.
The main challenge stormwater harvesting poses
is the removal of pollutants in order to make this
Groundwater
water recharge or deep
available for reuse
drainage or deep percolation is a 
hydrologic process where water moves
downward from surface water to 
groundwater. Recharge is the primary
method through which water enters
an aquifer. This process usually occurs
in the vadose zone below plant roots
 and is often expressed as a flux to
the water table surface
Water treatment is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use.
The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow
maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the
environment
Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their
concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use
Substances that are removed during the process of drinking water treatment include 
suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals such as iron and manganese.
The processes involved in removing the contaminants include physical processes such as 
settling and filtration, chemical processes such as disinfection and coagulation and
biological processes such as slow sand filtration
In coagulation, we add a chemical such as
alum which produces positive charges to
neutralize the negative charges on the
particles. Then the particles can stick
together, forming larger particles which are
more easily removed.
There are four main mechanisms for coagulation: double layer compression, adsorption
and charge neutralization, sweep flocculation, and inter-particle bridging. Sweep
flocculation is the primary mechanism used for drinking water treatment and will be the
focus of this lesson. Sweep flocculation occurs with the addition of iron or aluminium,
usually added as ferric sulphate or aluminium sulphate, which can easily dissolve into the
water. Iron and aluminium form many different cationic species in the pH range of less
than 7 or 8, which help
SEDIMENTATION The destabilize the to
last process natural particles
the first by compressing
barrier andcontamination
against water or eliminating is
the negative surface
sedimentation. charge
During on the particles
sedimentation, the flow of the water is slowed to resemble a calm
environment. As the water is calmed, the large flocs that have been formed settle to the
bottom of the sedimentation basin, sometimes called a clarifier. As the flocs are settling to
the bottom, the relatively particle free water passes over a system of weirs and moves to
the filtration process
Sedimentation basins are designed to be rectangles or circles, but in both cases the water is
commonly introduced at the bottom of the basin to give the flocs the best chance at
completely settling out. A mechanical rack collects the flocs that have reached the bottom
and remove them onto what is called sludge treatment

Factors affecting coagulation

1.Types of coagulant
2. Quantity or dose of coagulant
3.Characteristics of water
a. Type and quantity of suspended matter b. Temperature of water c. Ph of water
Sedimentation is a
physical water
treatment process
using gravity to remove
suspended solids
from water. Solid
particles entrained by
the turbulence of
moving water may be
removed naturally
by sedimentation in
the still water of lakes
and oceans

A sedimentation
tank allows suspended
particles to settle out of
water or wastewater as
it flows slowly through
the tank, thereby
providing some degree
of purification. A layer of
ZONE (TYPE III) SETTLING
In the bottom a compact sludge develops in the so called compaction zone (4). Between (2)
and (4), a transition zone (3) generally exists.
As time proceeds, the clarified effluent and compaction zones will increase in size while the
two intermediates will eventually disappear.
In the bottom a compact sludge develops in the so called compaction zone (4). Between (2)
and (4), a transition zone (3) generally exists. As time proceeds, the clarified effluent and
compaction zones will increase in size while the two intermediates will eventually disappear.
Types of sedimentation tanks:
Classification based on nature of working:
Fill and draw type
Continuous flow type
Classification based on location
Primary tank
Secondary tank
Classification based on shape
Rectangular tank
Circular tank
Hopper bottom type
 Sand filters are used in water purification for treating raw water to produce a potable
product. They are typically 1 to 2 metres deep, can be rectangular or cylindrical in
cross section and are used primarily to treat surface water.
Rapid sand filtration is a purely physical drinking water purification method. Rapid
sand filters (RSF) provide rapid and efficient removal of relatively large suspended
particles. Two types of RSF are typically used: rapid gravity and rapid pressure sand
filters.

Adjusting the surface charge on the particles and the sand by changing the pH
Coagulation – adding small, highly charged cations (aluminium 3+ or calcium 2+ are
usually used)
Flocculation – adding small amounts of charge polymer chains which either form a bridge
between the particulate solids (making them bigger) or between the particulate solids
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organisations,
community endeavours or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.
Irrigation is covered separately.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM...
Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure
head.
It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.
The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system.
All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one OF
LAYOUTS metre away or above
DISTRIBUTION the sewer
NETWORK
lines. The distribution pipes are generally laid
It should be fairly water-tight as to keep lossesbelow
due tothe
leakage
road topavements,
the minimum.
and as such
their layouts generally follow the layouts of
roads.
There are, in general, four different types
of pipe networks; any one of which either
singly or in combinations, can be used for a
particular place.
They are:
Dead End System
Radial System
Grid Iron System
DEAD END SYSTEM
It is suitable for old towns and cities having
no definite pattern of roads.

Advantage
Determination of discharge and pressure
easier due to less number of valves.
Relatively cheap
Disadvantage
Due to many dead ends, stagnation of
water occurs in pipes.
 
RADIAL SYSTEM
  The area is divided into different zones.
The water is pumped into the distribution
reservoir kept in the middle of each zone.
 The supply pipes are laid radially ending
towards the periphery.
Advantage
 It gives quick service.
 Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
GRID IRON SYSTEM
It is suitable for cities with rectangular
layout, where the water mains and branches
are laid in rectangles.
Advantages
Water is kept in good circulation due to the
absence of dead ends.
In the cases of a breakdown in some
section, water is available from some other
direction.
Disadvantages
Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not
RING SYSTEM
possible due to provision of valves on all
 The supply main is laid all along the peripheral
branches. 
roads and sub mains branch out from the mains.
 This system also follows the grid iron system
with the flow pattern similar in character to that
of dead end system.
So, determination of the size  of pipes is easy.
Advantages
Water can be supplied to any point from at
least two directions.
METHODS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION

For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure is required

at various points.

Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area and

other local conditions the water may be forced into distribution system
by following ways -

1. Gravity system

2. Pumping system

3. Combined gravity and pumping system

Gravity system
Suitable when source of supply is at sufficient height.
Most reliable and economical distribution system.
The water head available at the consumer is just minimum required.
The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and other losses.
PUMPING SYSTEM
Treated water is directly pumped in to the
distribution main with out storing.
Also called pumping without storage system.
High lifts pumps are required.
If power supply fails, complete stoppage of water
supply.
This method is not generally used.

COMBINED GRAVITY AND PUMPING SYSTEM

Most common system.
Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated
distribution reservoir.
Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity.
The excess water during low demand periods get
stored in reservoir and get supplied during high
demand period.
Economical, efficient and reliable system.
DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS
Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs, which store the
treated water for supplying water during emergencies (such as during fires, repairs, etc.) and
also to help in absorbing the hourly fluctuations in the normal water demand.

Functions of Distribution Reservoirs

 to absorb the hourly variations in demand.
 to maintain constant pressure in the
distribution mains.
 water stored can be supplied during
emergencies.

Location and Height of Distribution

Reservoirs
 should be located as close as possible to the
centre of demand
 water level in the reservoir must be at a
sufficient elevation to permit gravity flow at an
adequate pressure.
 TYPES OF RESERVOIRS...

Depending upon their elevation w.r.t ground it may be

classified into

1. Surface reservoirs
2. Elevated
SURFACE reservoirs
RESERVOIRS
These also called ground reservoir.
Mostly circular or rectangular tank.
Under ground reservoirs are preferred especially
when the size is large.
These reservoirs are constructed on high natural
grounds and are usually made of stones, bricks,
plain or reinforced cement concrete.
The side walls are designed to take up the
pressure of the water, when the reservoir is full and
the earth pressure when it is empty.
The position of ground water table is also
considered while designing these reservoirs.
The floors of these reservoirs may constructed
with R.C.C slab or square stone blocks resting on
columns.
TYPES OF TANKS
R.C.C TANKS: R.C.C tanks are very popular because
1) They have long life
2) Very little maintenance 
3) decent appearance

HDPE TANKS: Now a days HDPE tanks are very popular

for storing less quantity of water and hence useful for
residential purpose. The following are the advantages
of HDPE tanks
1) Handling is easy because of light weight
2) Cheap in cost
3) Maintenance cost is low
4) Cleaning of tanks are easy

G.I. TANKS: G.I. tanks are generally in rectangular or

square in shape. Now a days G.I. tanks are not
preferring because 
1) Life of the tank is short 
2) Corrosion of metal
3) maintenance cost may be more
Elevated Storage Reservoirs (ESRs) also
referred to as Overhead Tanks are required at
distribution areas which are not governed and
controlled by the gravity system of distribution.
These are rectangular, circular or elliptical in
shape.
If the topography of the town not suitable for
under gravity, the elevated tank or reservoir are
used.

They are constructed where combine gravity

and pumping system of water distribution is
adopted.

These tanks may be steel or RCC.

Now RCC is commonly preferred.

The accessories of ESR are-

Inlet and outlet pipe, overflow pipe discharging
into a drain
Float gauge, indicating depth of water.
Automatic device to stop pumping when the
Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension, that is intended to be removed
from a community. Also known as domestic or municipal wastewater, it is characterized
by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and
its bacteriologic status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities). It consists mostly
of greywater (from sinks, tubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers), black water (the
water used to flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away); soaps and
detergents; and toilet paper (less so in regions where bidets are widely used instead of paper).
Whether it also contains surface runoff depends on the design of sewer system
Factors Affecting the Quantity of Stormwater
The surface run-off resulting after precipitation contributes to the stormwater. The quantity of stormwater reaching to the sewers or
drains is very large as compared with sanitary sewage. The factors affecting the quantity of stormwater flow are as below:

i. Area of the catchment

ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.
vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall
vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
viii.Number and size of ditches present in the area

2. Measurement of Rainfall
The rainfall intensity could be measured by using rain gauges and recording the amount of rain falling in unit time. The rainfall
intensity is usually expressed as mm/hour or cm/hour. The rain gauges used can be manual recording type or automatic recording rain
gauges.
3. Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm Water

1.Rational Method
2.Empirical formulae method
In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is considered as function of intensity of rainfall, coefficient of runoff
and area of catchment.

Time of Concentration: The period after which the entire catchment area will start contributing to the runoff is called as the
time of concentration.
 The rainfall with duration lesser than the time of concentration will not produce maximum discharge.
 The runoff may not be maximum even when the duration of the rain is more than the time of concentration. This is
because in such cases the intensity of rain reduces with the increase in its duration.
 The runoff will be maximum when the duration of rainfall is equal to the time of concentration and is called as critical
rainfall duration. The time of concentration is equal to sum of inlet time and time of travel.
 Figure 6.1 Runoff from a given catchment

Inlet Time: The time required for the rain in falling on the most remote
point of the tributary area to flow across the ground surface along the
natural drains or gutters up to inlet of sewer is called inlet time (Figure
6.1). The inlet time ‘Ti’ can be estimated using relationships similar to
following. These coefficients Ti will haveL3different
= [0.885 /H]0.385 values for different
catchments.
Where,
Ti = Time of inlet, minute
L = Length of overland flow in Kilometer from critical point to mouth of drain H = Total fall of level from the critical point to
mouth of drain, meter
(1)

Time of Travel: The time required by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth to the point under consideration or the point
of concentration is called as time of travel.
Time of Travel (Tt) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain (2)

Runoff Coefficient: The total precipitation falling on any area is dispersed as percolation, evaporation, storage in ponds or reservoir and
surface runoff. The runoff coefficient can be defined as a fraction, which is multiplied with the quantity of total rainfall to determine the
quantity of rain water, which will reach the sewers. The runoff coefficient depends upon the porosity of soil cover, wetness and ground
cover. The overall runoff coefficient for the catchment area can be worked out as follows:
Overall runoff coefficient, C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + ….+ An.Cn] / [ A1 + A2 + …+ An] Where, A1, A2, ….An are
types of area with C1, C2, …Cn as their coefficient of runoff, respectively.
The typical runoff coefficient for the different ground cover is provided in the Table. Runoff coefficient for
different type of cover in catchment
6.3.1 Rational method
Storm water quantity can be estimated by rational method as below: Storm
water quantity, Q = C.I.A / 360 Type of Cover Coefficient of runoff
Where, Business areas 0.70 – 0.90
Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec C = Coefficient of runoff Apartment areas 0.50 – 0.70
Single family area 0.30 – 0.50
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hour) for the duration equal to time of Parks, Playgrounds, Lawns 0.10 – 0.25
Paved Streets 0.80 –0.90
concentration, and A = Drainage area in hectares Water tight roofs 0.70 – 0.95
OR Q = 0.278 C.I.A
Where, Q is m3/sec; I is mm/hour, and A is area in square kilo meter
6.3.2 Empirical Formulae
Empirical formulae are used for determination of runoff from very large area. Various empirical
relationships are developed based on the past observations on specific(5) site conditions suiting a particular
region. These empirical formulae can be used for prediction of storm water runoff for that particular
catchment.

A] Burkli – Zeiglar formula

Q
C.I.A 141.58
4 S/A
 B] Mc Math formula (used in USA)

C.I.A 5
Q S/A
C] Fuller’s formula 148.35

Q
C.M 0.8
(Where, S- Slope of the area in meter per thousand meter, M- drainage area in sq. km., A – drainage area in hectare)
13.23
Empirical formulae for rainfall intensities
These relationships between rainfall intensity and duration are developed based on long term
experience in field (Figure 6.2). Under Indian conditions, intensity of rainfall in design is
usually in the range 12 mm/h to 20 mm/h. In general, the empirical relationship has the
following forms:
Where, a, b, and n are constants.

I = a/ (t + b) OR I = b / tn

I = 760 / (t + 10) (for storm duration of 5 to 20 minutes) (10)

I = 1020 / (t + 10) (for storm duration of 20 to 100 minutes) (11)

Where, I is intensity of rainfall, mm/h and t is duration of storm,

minutes.
Two types of wastewater
Domestic wastewater (Sewage)
Industrial waste water
Wide variation in quality of Industrial waste water
Less variation in the characteristics of sewage

Composition of Sewage
 Chemical process
 Biological Process
 Two type of Biological Process
 Aerobic Biological Process
 COHNS + Bacteria + O2  CO2 + H2O +Bacteria + Energy
 Anaerobic Biological Process
 In the absence of Oxygen & end product is Methane, H2S &
ammonia.
Characteristics of Sewage
Physical Characteristics
Colour :
Fresh sewage brown & yellowish colour
With the passage of time it become septic -black colour
Odour
Fresh sewage not offensive odour
Stale sewage – offensive odour ( All the oxygen disappeared from the
sewage)
Temperature
Higher temperature –biological Activity more means demand of oxygen more
but solubility of DO at higher temp. decrease
Turbidity
Due to suspended solids
Measured by Jackson turbiditymeter
Nephelometric turbidity meter
 Chemical Characteristics
Solids :
 Sewage contain 99.9 % sewage & 0.1 % solid
 Solids may be organic or inorganic
 45% organic solids & 55 % inorganic solids
 pH :
 pH > 7 Alkalinity
 pH< 7 Acidic
 pH = 7 Neutral
 Fresh sewage is alkaline, with the passage of time acidic
 pH determination is important in biological treatment, Chemical coagulation,
chlorination(Disinfection
Nitrogen Compound
One or more of the following form
Free amonia – First stage of decomposition
Organic Nitrogen – Total Organic nitrogen
Nitrite – Partly decomposition of organic matter
Nitrate – fully decomposition of organic matter
Chloride content
Main sources in sewage kitchen waste, human feces & urinary discharge
Industry like ice-cream plant, meat salting etc.
Fat, Oil & grease
Main sources – from garage, kitchen of hotel & restaurant, discharge of animal & vegetable
matter. Major problem in biological process – due to scum on the surface & affect oxygen
diffusion
Toxic Compound
Copper, lead, silver, Chromium, Arsenic, Phenol, boron, Cyanide etc are toxic
compound
Major source – Industrial wastewater Affect biological treatment
 Sulphide, sulphate & Hydrogen Sulphide Gases
 In Aerobic decomposition
 Sulphur  Sulphide  Sulphate
 In Anaerobic Decomposition
 Sulphur  Sulphide with H2S + CH4
 Dissolved Oxygen
 Amount of oxygen dissolve in water
 For the survival of Dissolve oxygen minimum 4 mg/lit dissolve oxygen is essential
 It prevent the formation of obnoxious odour
 Factor affect D.O.
 Temperature
 TDS of water
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
 Two type of organic matter
 Biodegradeable & Non biodegradable
 BOD means amount of oxygen required by bacteria for the decomposition of
biodegradable organic matter under aerobic condition
 Widely used to determine the pollution strength of domestic & industrial waste
 Useful in the design of wastewater treatment plant
 First stage BOD- related to the carbonaceous organic matter
 Second stage BOD – Related to the nitrogeneous matter
 Measured for 5 days at 20 degree centigrate or 3 day 27 degree centigrate

COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

Measure both biodegradable & Non biodegradable organic matter
Takes 3 hrs
Value is always higher than BOD
Characteristics of Industrial Natural force
wastewater Dilution – Higher dilution ratio– Aerobic condition exit
Organic substance Sedimentation – Concentration of wastewater get
Inorganic substance reduced
Acid & alkalies Sunlight – stimulate the growth of algue
Toxic Substances Oxidation – continue till complete oxidation of organic
Color producing substance matter take place.
Oil Most important action responsible for effecting self
purification
Treatment of Industrial waste water
Equalization – to get uniform quality of wastewater
Neutralization- Neutralize excess acidity or alkalinity
Physical treatment
Sedimentation- For the removal of settable solid
Biological Treatment
If BOD/COD > 0.6 highly biodegradable
If BOD/COD < 0.3 Biological treatment is not feasible
If BOD/COD between 0.3 to 0.6 acclimatization is needed for the
biological treatment
Chemical Treatment
Chemical coagulation
Adsorption
Chemical Oxidation
Factors Affecting Self Purification
Temperature
Velocity
Rate of re-aeration
Amount & type of organic matter
Available initial DO
Types of micro-organism present

Temperature - Higher temp. biological activity more but solubility of dissolved oxygen less
Velocity – if high - Oxygen diffusion rapidly
if low – oxygen diffusion slowly
Rate of re-aeration – Greater the rate, rapid the self purification
Amount & type of organic matter – more biodegradable organic matter , more oxygen
demand- D.O. decrease
Available initial DO – Greater at the time of discharge earlier the self purification
Types of micro-organism present – Algue present with bacteria – Oxygen added by algue
Classification of Treatment Methods The individual treatment methods are usually classified
as:
 Physical unit operations  Chemical unit processes  Biological unit processes.

Physical Unit Operations: Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces
predominates are known as physical unit operations. Most of these methods are based on
physical forces, e.g. screening, mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, and filtration.
Chemical Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which removal or conversion of contaminant
is brought by addition of chemicals or by other chemical reaction are known as chemical unit
processes, for example, precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, and disinfection

Chemical Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which removal or conversion of

contaminant is brought by addition of chemicals or by other chemical reaction are known as
chemical unit processes, for example, precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, and
disinfection

Biological Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is

brought about by biological activity are known as biological unit processes.
 This is primarily used to remove biodegradable organic substances from the wastewater,
either in colloidal or dissolved form.
 In the biological unit process, organic matter is converted into gases that can escape to
the atmosphere and into bacterial cells, which can be removed by settling.
 Biological treatment is also used for nitrogen removal and for phosphorous and sulphate
PLUMBING SYSTEM THE ROMANS
• Water supply pipes Wastewater System
• Fixture – A device that uses water (sink, toilet, Chamber pots in residences
dishwasher, etc.) Dumped out windows
• Soil, waste, and vent pipes Toilets (luxury)
• Drain and sewer Hole in the floor drained to cesspool
• Gas pipes below
• Storm water drainage Public latrines
Components of
a residential Wastewater flowed through central
drainage channel into main sewage system
system and into nearby rivers and streams
Few private wastewater system
connections
The residential plumbing system is often taken
for granted, but it is an important part of the
structure.

A complete plumbing system provides an

adequate supply of water and removes waste.

There are three principal parts:

1.Water supply system.
2.Water and waste removal system.
3.Plumbing fixtures.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Network of pipes that transport hot and cold potable water under
pressure
Fixture – A device that uses water (sink, toilet, dishwasher, etc.)
Water Heater – Large insulated tanks that heat cold water to be
distributed in the hot water supply lines
Trunk Lines – Hot or cold water pipes that serve many fixtures
Branch Lines – Hot or cold water pipes that serve only one or two
fixtures
WATER AND WASTE REMOVAL

• Used water and other wastes are carried to the sanitary sewer or
septic tank through the waste removal system.

• These pipes are isolated from the water supply system and must be
sized for sufficient capacity, have the proper slope and venting, and
have provisions for cleanouts.

• Typically it is practical to drain as many of the fixtures as possible

into a single main drain.

• The drainage system is not under pressure and depends on gravity

to carry the waste to the sewer.
DRAIN-WASTE-VENT SYSTEM
Network of pipes that transport wastewater
and sewer gases from the building
Drain Pipe – A pipe that carries wastewater in
a building
Vent Pipe – A vertical pipe that provides
circulation of air to and from the drainage
system
Trap – A fitting (usually U-shaped) that
provides a seal to prevent the flow of sewer
gases
Stack – A vertical pipe (waste or vent) that
extends through at least one story
Cleanout – An access opening to allow
cleanout of the pipe

A vertical drain pipe that collects waste from

one or more fixtures is called a soil stack.
Soil stacks that drain water closets are called
main stacks.
Every house must have at least one main
stack, which is generally 3" in diameter.
Each bathroom must have a main stack.
Fixtures are connected to the stack using a branch
main.
All stacks extend into basement and empty into
the house drain.
All structures must have at least one house drain,
but may have several.

The house drain becomes the house sewer once it

is outside the house. The house sewer empties
into the city sanitary sewer or private septic
system.

Gases from the system dissipate through the vent

stack—12" above roof. The vent stack provides an
air inlet for the drainage system to operate
properly

A trap is installed below each fixture to prevent

gases from entering the house. The trap is always
filled with water. Water closets have a built-in
trap.
DRAIN-WASTE-VENT SYSTEM
Sewage – Any liquid waste containing animal or vegetable
matter, including liquids containing chemicals
Sanitary Sewer – A sewer pipe that carries only sewage
Storm Sewer – A sewer pipe that carries storm water or other
drainage (but not sewage)
Building Sewer or Sewer Lateral – Part of the drainage system
from the building to the public, private, or individual sewer
disposal system
Sewer Main – A sewer pipe installed and maintained by a public L
entity and on public property LATERA

MA
IN
TRAPS
The trap most commonly used with plumbing
fixtures is the P-trap. The P-trap gets its name
because of its general shape-that of the letter P.

Traps are required because they prevent sewer

gases from entering a building and causing serious
illness or death.

The term Trap Seal refers to the water being held

in the bent portion of a fixture trap. The trap seal
forms a seal against the passage of sewer gases
through the trap and into the building.
HOUSE DRAIN
A house drain is the pipe that
receives all waste and water
discharged by the soil stacks and
waste lines.

This house drain is laid from a

point just outside the building
foundation wall where it connects
to the house sewer, then through
the wall, and either along or
under the cellar floor to the point
where connection with the soil
stack is made.

Before laying this drain,

determine its overall length and
how much pitch to give it so that
it will drain as it should.
HOUSE TRAP
Building (House) traps shall be provided with a
cleanout and a relief vent or fresh air intake on the
inlet side of the trap.
Relief vents or fresh air intake shall be carried above
grade and shall be terminated in a screened outlet
located outside the building.
The size of the relief vent or fresh aid intake shall not
be less than one-half the diameter of the drain to
which the relief vent or air intake connects.
A soil stack is a
vertical drain
pipe that carries
soil waste from
sanitary units
(i.e. toilets.

A waste stack is
any other vertical
drain pipe that
doesn’t carry soil
from a sanitary
fixture.
CLEANOUTS
A plumbing cleanout is a
cleanout fitting with a
removable plug that is found in
a roughed in waste system. It
is designed to help keep clear
any type of debris that could
cause any type of stoppage in
the water drain lines.
Cleanouts are usually placed at
the connection point between
the sewer lines and the drain
lines where the base is located
of a vertical stack and at all
places were the pipe direction
changes at 90 degrees.
Cleanouts are required at base
of all stacks.
VENTS
To prevent the siphonage of a trap seal in
fixture traps and allow gravity flow of
drainage, you must let atmospheric air
from outside the building into the piping
system to the outlet (or discharge) end of
the trap. The air is supplied through pipes
called VENTS. This air provides pressure on
the outlet end of the seal equal to pressure
on the inlet end.

Since the air supplied by the vent to the

outlet end provides a pressure equal to
that at the inlet end of the trap, the trap
seal cannot escape through siphonage.

All vent systems should be provided with a

main vent or vent stack and a main soil
and waste vent. A “main vent” may be
defined as the principal artery of the
venting system, and vent  branches  may
 be connected to the main vent and run
undiminished in size as directly as possible
A COMMON VENT vents two
traps to a single vent pipe.

The unit vent can be used

when a pair of lavatories are
installed side by side, as well
as when they are hung back
to back on either side of a
partition
RISER DIAGRAM
Riser diagrams are used as supplementary details on
working drawings in order to show more clearly how
the plumbing system is to be installed.

Riser diagrams of plumbing systems can be shown in

both orthographic and isometric views. The most
commonly used type of riser diagram for plumbing is
the isometric riser diagram. The isometric riser
diagram provides a three-dimensional representation
of the plumbing system.
A riser diagram is not drawn to scale but should be
correctly proportioned
TYPICAL RISER DIAGRAM IN ELEVATION
PLUMBING PLANS
The Plumbing Plan is a plan view that
shows the complete plumbing system.
The plumbing plan shows the location,
size, and type of all plumbing
equipment.

The plumbing plan should include:

Waste lines and vent stacks.
Drain and plumbing fixture
locations.
Size and type of pipe to be used.
A plumbing fixture schedule.
Symbols Legend.
General notes.

A plumbing plan is required for each

floor of the house.
PLUMBING SYMBOLS
PLUMBING FIXTURE SCHEDULE
SOLAR HEATING SOLAR WATER HEATING APPLICATIONS
Solar energy can be used for  Swimming pools
• Solar water heating  Hot tubs and spas
• Solar space heating  Domestic hot water
• Solar pool heating o Offices, malls, hotels, motels
o Large laundries and kitchens
Active solar water heaters rely on electric o Facilities in remote areas
pumps, and controllers to circulate water. o Jails, hospitals and dormitories

Active solar water-heating systems:

• Direct-circulation systems
• Indirect-circulation systems

The two most popular types of passive systems

are:
• Thermosyphon systems
• Integrated solar collectors Process hot water
• Food processing, hot water cleanup
• Hot water rinses
• Pre-heat boiler makeup water
VALUE OF SOLAR WATER HEATING
 Directly substitute renewable energy for conventional energy
 Reduce the amount of heat that must be provided by conventional water heating
 Reduce the use of electricity or fossil fuels by as much as 80%.
Today’s solar water heating systems are well proven and reliable when correctly matched to
climate and load.
Solar water heating systems are most likely to be cost effectivePLATES
ABSORBER for facilities with expensive
energy, or facilities with large hot water requirements.
There are various designs
TYPES OF COLLECTORS  Bonded sheet design
Low temperature – to 32ºC  Tubes soldered or brazed to the plate
Unglazed absorbers  Tubes fastened by clips, clamps or twisted
Mid temperature – to 70ºC wires.
Glazed flat plate collectors
Integrated collector systems (ICS),
thermosyphon, antifreeze, drain back
High temperature
Evacuated tube – to 175ºC
Parabolic trough – to 300ºC
PASSIVE, INDIRECT THERMOSYPHON SYSTEM

Evacuated Tube Collector

TWO MAIN TYPES OF PASSIVE SYSTEMS

• Integrated Collector Systems (ICS)
store the water in the collector itself
• Thermosyphon Systems
have a separate storage tank directly above the
collector
 Good insulation of the collector and/or tank helps
prevent heat loss at night, and helps prevent freezing.
 Connection pipes are the most critical parts for concern
over freezing. Good insulation is necessary, but still does
not totally solve the problem.
 The most frequently used systems for large facilities –
antifreeze systems – are active, indirect systems.
 System configurations may utilize one storage tank or
two tanks.
• Single tank – conventional h/w heater
• Single tank – wrap-around heat exchanger
• Two tank – convection flow
• The most cost-effective size for a solar water heating
system is typically to meet the full summer demand, but
to meet only 2/3 of the year-round demand.
• Meeting the full winter demand with the reduced solar
resource is very costly.
• Experience with commercial buildings seems to show
that maximum cost-effectiveness occurs at a solar
supply of about 50% of the year-round demand.
Efficiency Aspects of Solar Water Heating
 Colder water supply temperatures increase
system efficiency, since the fluid being heated
loses less heat to the surrounding air until it
reaches higher temperatures.
 Colder air temperatures reduce system
efficiency by increasing the loss of heat from the
collectors to the air.
 Potential for system freezing is a serious
problem, and many solutions result in reducing
Fire Resistance:
system The measure of the ability of a material, product, or assembly to
efficiency.
withstand fire or give protection from it.
• Fire Resistance Rating: The time, in minutes or hours, that materials or
assemblies have withstood a standard fire exposure
Down comer: An arrangement of fire fighting within the building by means of down comer
pipe connected to terrace tank through terrace pump, gate valve and non return valve and
having mains not less than 100mm internal diameter with landing valves on each floor
landing. It is also fitted with inlet connections at ground level for charging with water by
pumping from fire services appliances and air release valve at roof level to release trapped air
inside.
Dry Riser: An arrangement of fire fighting within the building by means of vertical rising
mains not less than 100mm internal diameter with landing valves on each floor/landing, which
is normally dry but is capable of being charged with water usually by pumping from fire
service appliances.
Emergency Lighting: Lighting provided for use when the supply to the normal lighting fails.
Emergency Lighting System: A complete but discrete emergency lighting installation from
standby power source to the emergency lighting lamp(s), for example, self contained
emergency luminaire or a circuit from central battery generator connected through wiring to
several escape luminaries.
Escape Lighting: That part of emergency lighting which is provided to ensure that the
escape route is illuminated at all material times (for example, at all times when persons are on
the premises), or at times the main lighting is not available, either for the whole building or
the escape routes.
Fire Door: A fire-resistive door approved for openings in fire separation walls
Fire Exit: A way out leading to an escape route. Having panic bar hardware provided on the
door.
Fire Lift: The lift installed to enable fire services personnel to reach different floors with
minimum deley, having such features as required in accordance with this Part.
General Exit Requirements:
An exit may be a doorway, corridor; passageway(s) to an internal staircase, or external
staircase, or to a veranda or terrace(s), which have access to the street, or to the roof of a
building or a refuge area. An exit may also include
a horizontal exit leading to an adjoining building at the same level.
Lifts and escalators shall not be considered as exits.
Every exit, exit access or exit discharge shall be continuously maintained free of allow
obstructions or impediments to full use in the case of fire or other emergency

Types of Extinguishers:
(a) Portable fire extinguishers can be divided into 5 categories according to the
extinguishing agent they contain:
(i) Water type extinguishers;
(ii) Foam extinguishers;
(iii)Dry powder extinguishers;
(iv)CO2 extinguishers; and
(v) Halon / Halon alternative type extinguishers
sprinkler system is designed to check a fire in the
initial stages and not to cope with a developed fire.
A developed fire, beyond the scope of sprinklers, is
tackled effectively by fire service intervention.
A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection
 method, consisting of a water supply system, providing
adequate pressure and flowrate to a water distribution
piping system,
Multi-level onto which fire
basements, coveredsprinklers are connected
upper floors used as
car parks, and for housing essential services ancillary
to a particular occupancy or
for storage occupancy, excluding any area to be used
for substation, A/C plant and DG set
Departmental stores or shops , if the aggregate
covered area exceeds 500m2
God owns and warehouses, as considered necessary