Unit - II

Digital communication
 CONTENTS
 Introduction, Shannon limit for information
capacity,
 digital amplitude modulation,
 frequency shift keying, FSK bit rate and baud,
FSK transmitter, BW consideration of FSK, FSK
receiver,
 phase shift keying – binary phase shift keying –
QPSK,
 Quadrature Amplitude modulation, bandwidth
efficiency,
 carrier recovery – squaring loop, Costas loop,
DPSK.
 Introduction

 Digital communication include systems where relatively

high frequency analog carriers are modulated by
relatively low frequency digital information signals.
 Digital modulation also called digital radio, can
propagate through free space & used in wireless
communication.
 And systems involving transmission of digital pulses
(digital transmission)- requires physical medium like
metallic wire pair, coaxial cable or optical fiber cable.
 Digital Modulation is defined as the transmission of
digitally modulated analog signals (carriers) between 2 or
more points.
 Applications
 Application of Digital Modulation :
1.low –speed voice –band data communications modem ,in personal
computer
2. Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) – high speed data communication-
broadband
3. Digital Microwave
4. Satellite Communication system
5. Cellular telephone Personal Communication
Systems (PCS)

 There are 2 type of Digital Modulation:

 1. Pulse Modulation – PAM, PWM, PPM
 2. Binary Modulation – ASK, FSK, PSK, PCM
Block diagram of a digital radio
system
 Transmitter: precoder performs level conversion and
then encodes the incoming group of bits that modulates
the analog carrier.
 Modulated carrier is shaped(filtered),amplified and
transmitted through medium.
 Medium – metallic cable,optical fiber or free space.
 Receiver – incoming signals are filtered,amplified & then
applied to demodulator & decoder circuits – extracts
original source from modulated carrier.
 Clock & carrier recovery circuits recover analog carrier &
digital timing (clock) signals from incoming modulated
wave ,necessary to perform demodulation process.
 Advantages & disadvantages
Advantages
•Noise immunity
•(Time domain) Multiplexing
•Regeneration
•Simple to evaluate and measure
Disadvantages
•More bandwidth
•Additional encoding (A/D) and decoding
(D/A) circuitry
 Information capacity
 Information theory –theoretical study of efficient use
bandwidth to propagate information through
electronic communication system.
 Information theory is used to determine information
capacity of communication system.
 Information capacity is a measure of how much
information can be propagated & is function of
bandwidth & transmission line.
 The information capacity of a communication system
represents the number of independent symbols that
can be carried through the system in a given unit of
time.
 Basic digital symbol used to express information is
binary digit or bit.
 Bit rate: number of bits transmitted during one
second ,expressed in bits per second(bps).
 Hartley’s Law:
I  B *t
I = k t B -( 1928,R.Hartley of bell laboratories)
where I = amount of information; k = system constant; t = transmission time in
seconds; B = channel bandwidth(Hz).

 Shannon’s Formula:
By using Shannon limit for information capacity, the relationship
between Information capacity to the signal bandwidth and SNR is defined
below:
 S  S
I  B log 2 1    3.32 B log10 1  
 N  N
I = information capacity (bit/second)
B= system bandwidth (Hertz)
S/N =signal-to-noise power ratio (dimensionless
 EXAMPLE 1
A standard voice-band communication channels
have a SNR power of 1000 (30 dB) and signal
Bandwidth of 2.7 kHz. Determine the information
capacity.
Solution :
By using Shannon’s Limit, information
capacity is defined as:
I = (2.7 kHz)(3.32)log10 (1 + 1000) = 26.9kbps
 M-ary Encoding
 M-ary deived from N = number of bits
binary. necessary
 Advantageous to
encode at a higher level M = number of
than binary. conditions, levels, or
 Number of bits combinations possible
necessary to produce a with N bits
no. of conditions is
For binary M = 2  N = 1
N  log 2 M
 The no. of conditions
possible with N bits

2 M
N
Baud & Minimum Bandwidth
 Bit is rate of change of a digital information signal, at the input to the
Modulator (bits per second, bps).
 Baud is rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after
encoding and modulation have occurred (symbols per seconds), rate of
change at output of the Modulator.
 Baud is unit of transmission rate, modulation rate or symbol rate.
 Mathematically baud is reciprocal of the time of one signaling element,
1
baud  f s 
ts
baud = fs = symbol rate (baud per second)
ts = time of one signaling element (second)
symbol = one signaling element
 Binary signals encoded & transmitted 1 bit at a time in form of discrete
voltage levels (logic 1 => High, logic 0 => Low)
 Usually Baud < bit rate.
 In binary systems(BPSK & BFSK ) : baud = bit rate.
 In higher level data communication (QPSK & 8 PSK) : baud < bit rate.
 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth
Minimum BW necessary to For multilevel signaling
propagate a signal is called
minimum Nyquist BW or fb  f s N  2BN  2B log 2 M
minimum Nyquist frequency.
  fb  fb
B 
 2log 2 M  2N
fb = bitrate (bps)
fs = baud (symbols per second)
B = ideal Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
M = number of discrete signals or voltage levels
N = number of bits encoded into each symbol
If information bits are encoded (grouped) and then converted to signals
more than two levels , excess than 2B.
Since baud is encoded rate of change, it also equals the bit rate divided by
no. of bits encoded into one signaling element.
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Binary information signal directly modulates the
amplitude of an analog carrier.
 called as Digital Amplitude Modulation(DAM).
Mathematically ,ASK is
Amplitude shift keying wave

Digital information(modulating) signal in Volts

Unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)

is a normalized binary waveform, +1V =logic 1 and -1V = logic 0.

Carrier is either on or off in ask modulated wave, therefore called

as on-off keying(OOK)
 Frequency shift keying,
FSK bit rate and baud,
FSK transmitter,
BW consideration of FSK, FSK
receiver
 Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
 Relatively low performance type of digital
modulation .
 Is a constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to
FM except the message signal is binary that varies
between 2 discrete voltages rather than continuously
changing analog waveform.
 Called as binary FSK (BFSK).
FSK waveform
Expression for FSK
FSK in freq. domain
 Peak shift in carrier
freq.,(f) is proportional to
amplitude of input signal &
 direction of shift is
determined by polarity.
 Logic 1= +1V,

 Logic 0 = -1V
Approximate BW found using Bessel’s table.
Fastest rate of change (highest fundamental freq.,)in a non-return to zero(NRZ)
binary signal occurs when alternating 1’s & 0’s are occurring (square wave)
Takes a High and a low to produce a cycle .
The highest fundamental frequency present in a square wave equals the
repetition rate of the square wave ,which with a binary signal is equal to half the
bit rate.
Modulation index used for FM valid for FSK also, thus

Worst -case modulation index?

Worst- case bandwidth?
 FSK transmitter
 Similar to conventional FM modulator.
 Usually a Voltage – controlled oscillator(VCO)
 VCO-output freq., depend upon input voltage.
 Center freq.,(fc ) chosen such that it falls halfway
between mark & space freq.,
 Binary input signal changes back & forth between
logic 1 and logic 0.
 Logic1 – shifts VCO output to
 Logic 0 – shifts VCO output to
 What is freq., deviation?
 FSK modulator

 VCO operated in sweep mode of

modulation, the freq., deviation,

With binary FSK, input signal one of two values logic 1 and
logic 0.
Since peak voltage same for logic 1 and logic 0, the
magnitude of freq., deviation same for logic 1 and logic 0
 FSK receiver

Data
output

Non-Coherent FSK demodulator

FSK inputs is simultaneously applied to input of both
Band Pass filter(BPF) through power splitter.
Respective filters passes only mark or space freq., to
envelope detector.
Envelope detector: indicates total power in each pass
band.
Comparator: responds to largest of two powers.
Non-coherent : there is no freq., synchronized either
in phase ,freq or both with incoming FSK signal.
 Coherent FSK demodulator

Data output

Incoming FSK signal is multiplied by a

recovered carrier signal that has exact same
freq., & phase of transmitter reference.
However, two transmitted freq.,(fm & fs) are
not generally continuous, not practical to
reproduce a local reference that is coherent .
Seldom used.
PLL –FSK demodulator
Continuous –Phase FSK(CP-FSK)
Non continuous
FSK waveform

CP-MSK waveform
Phase Shift Keying(PSK),
Binary phase shift
keying(BPSK),
Quadrature PSK(QPSK)
 Phase Shift Keying(PSK)
 Another form of angle modulated ,constant amplitude
digital modulation
 PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme, similar to
PM, except PSK input is binary signal & limited no. of
phases possible.
 Input binary information is encoded into group of bits
before modulating carrier.
 No. of bits in groups ranges from 1 -12 or more .
 The no. of output phases defined by M & determined by
no. of bits in group(N).
N  log 2 M
Binary phase shift
keying(BPSK)
 N=1 , therefore M=22 N M
 2 output phases are possible in BPSK.
 One phase represents – Logic 1
 Another phase represents – Logic 0
 As digital signal changes from 1 to 0 or from 0
to 1,phase of output carrier shifts between
two angles separated by 180 .
 Hence , called Phase reversal Keying(PRK) or
biphase modulation.
Binary phase shift
keying(BPSK)
Binary Phase Shift Keying
Balanced ring modulator
Logic 1 input
Logic 0 input
BPSK Modulator
Truth table Phasor Diagram

Constellation Diagram
BPSK Receiver
QPSK
Quaternary or Quadrature PSK.
M-ary encoding scheme; N=2 ,M=4(quaternary -4)
4 output phases possible for single carrier freq.,
Binary input data is combined into group of bits
,called dibits.
Each dibits code generates 4 possible output
phases(+45,+135,-45,-135).
Rate of change at output (baud) is equal to one-half
for input bit rate (i.e., 2 input bits produce one
output phase change)
QPSK Transmitter
 Truth table Phasor Diagram

Constellation Diagram
Output Phase vs time relation
Bandwidth considerations of QPSK
QPSK Receiver
 Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
 Modified form of QPSK.
 Never more than a single bit change in dibit code &
therefore not more than 90 degree phase change.
 In conventional QPSK, input changes from 00 to 11 or 01
to 10. Therefore 180 degree shift in output phase.
 OQPSK-limited phase shift imparted during modulation.
 Disadvantage: baud & min.BW are twice that of
conventional QPSK.
 Also called OKQPSK (offset –Keyed QPSK)
OQPSK –Block Diagram
Bit Alignment

Constellation Diagram
8-PSK
 With 8-PSK, three bits are encoded, forming tribits
and producing eight different outputphases.
 With 8-PSK, N=3,M=8, and there are eight possible
output phases.
 To encode eight different phases, the incoming
bits are encoded in groups of three, called tribits
(23 =8).
8 PSK MODULATOR
TRUTH TABLE
Phasor diagram
Constellation diagram
8-QAM Transmitter
Truth Table
2-4 converters

Truth Table
Phasor Diagram
Constellation
Diagram

Output Phase & Amplitude VS time

8-QAM Receiver
16-QAM
 As with the 16-PSK, 16-QAM is an M-ary system
where M =16 ,N=4. The input data are acted on in
groups of four (24 =16).
 As with 8-QAM, both the phase and the
amplitude of the transmit carrier are varied.
16-QAM TRANSMITTER
TRUTH TABLE
BANDWIDTH CONSIDERATION
16-QAM RECEIVER