Chapter 6

6. Combustion & Combustion

chambers

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 6.1. Introduction
• Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the
fuel like hydrogen and carbon combine with oxygen liberating heat
energy and causing an increase in temperature of the gases.
• The necessary conditions for combustion are the presence of
– combustible mixture (Fuel + Air)
– some means of initiating the process (heat)
• Fuel -air mixture for combustion process depending on the
type of engine. It can be either:
– a homogeneous Mixture (for SI engines) or
– a heterogeneous Mixture (for CI engines)

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 6.2. Air fuel ratio
• Air fuel ratio is the ratio of the weight of air to the weight of fuel
supplied to an engine cylinder during a cycle of operations.
• A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of
the fuel is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric air fuel
ratio. This value for petrol engine is normally 14.7:1 for gasoline
engines (approximately 15: 1).
• A mixture is said to be rich if it contains more fuel than the fuel
quantity in the chemically correct mixture. For example: 12:1
• A mixture is said to be lean if it contains more air than the air
quantity in the chemically correct mixture. For example: 17:1

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 6.3. Combustion in S.I. Engines
• The fuel and air are homogeneously mixed together in the intake
system, inducted in to the cylinder and mixed with residual gases,
then compressed. Combustion is initiated towards the end of
compression stroke at the spark plug by an electric discharge which
causes the cylinder gases to expand and pressurize the cylinder,
such that the piston is driven away from the combustion chamber
on its power stroke.

• Combustion in the SI engine may

be broadly divided in to two
general types.
1. Normal Combustion
2. Abnormal Combustion

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 6.4. Stages of Combustion in SI Engine
• The 3 stages Actual engine combustion process.
i. AB- First stage Ignition and Flame Development (Delay Period)
ii. BC- Second stage Flame Propagation (flame Propagation)
iii. CD- Third stage Flame Termination (wall Quenching)
• Point A is the point of passage of spark (let say 180bTDC).
• Point B is the point at which the beginning of pressure rise can be
detected (let say 80 bTDC).
• Point C the attainment of peak pressure.

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 i. Ignition and Flame Development
• Combustion is initiated by an electrical discharge across the
electrodes of a spark plug. This occurs anywhere from 10° to
30° before TDC, depending on the geometry of the
combustion chamber and the immediate operating
conditions of the engine.
• Combustion starts very slowly because of the high heat
losses to the relatively cold spark plug and gas mixture.
Flame can generally be detected at about 6° of crank rotation
after spark plug firing.
• Flame development is generally considered the consumption
of the first 5% - 10% of the air-fuel mixture.
• During the flame development period, ignition occurs and
the combustion process starts, but very little pressure rise is
noticeable and little or no useful work is produced.
 ii. Flame Propagation
• This is the period when the bulk of the fuel and air mass is burned
(80-90%). During this time, pressure in the cylinder is greatly
increased, and this provides the force to produce work in the
expansion stroke.
• Compression of the unburned gases raises their temperature by
compressive heating. In addition, radiation heating emitted from
the flame reaction zone, which is at a temperature on the order of
3000 K, further heats the gases in the combustion chamber,
unburned and burned.
• As the flame moves through the combustion chamber, it travels
through an environment that is progressively increasing in
temperature and pressure. This causes the chemical reaction time to
decrease and the flame front speed to increase, a desirable result.
 iii. Flame Termination

• The final 5% -10% of the air-fuel mass which burns is classified as

flame termination.
• During this time, pressure quickly decreases and combustion stops.
At about 15° to 20° aTDC.
• Although at this point the piston has already moved away from
TDC, the combustion chamber volume has only increased on the
order of 10-20% from the very small clearance volume. This means
that the last mass of air and fuel will react in a very small volume in
the corners of the combustion chamber and along the chamber
walls.
 6.5. Flame Front Propagation
• Spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture between and near the
electrodes. This creates flame front that propagates outward into
the combustion chamber.
• The two important factors which determine the rate of movement of
the flame front across the combustion chamber are:
1. Reaction rate: the reaction rate is the result of a purely
chemical combination process in which the flame eats its way
into the unburned charge.
2. Transposition rate: is due to the physical movement of the
flame front relative to the cylinder wall and also the result of
the pressure differential between the burning gases and the
unburnt gases in the combustion chamber.
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 Flame Front Propagation stages:
• A-B • B-C
– low transposition rate  Flame progresses more rapidly
– low reaction rate and at a constant rate.
 high transposition rate.
• C-D
 High reaction rate.
 transposition rate again
becomes negligible.
 reaction rate is also reduced.

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 Factors Influencing The Flame Speed
• The main factors are:
– Turbulence: turbulence increases the heat flow to the cylinder wall. It
also accelerates the chemical reaction.
– Fuel-Air Ratio: The highest flame velocities are obtained with some
what richer mixture because high thermal energy is released.
– Temperature and Pressure: Flame speed increases with an increase
in intake temperature and pressure.
– Compression Ratio: the engines having higher compression ratios
have higher flame speeds.
– Engine Output: The cycle pressure increases when the engine out put
(throttle opening) is increased. This results in increased flame speed.
– Engine Size: In large engines the time required for complete
combustion is more because the flame has to travel a longer distance
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 RATE OF PRESSURE RISE
• The rate of pressure rise in an engine combustion chamber exerts
a considerable influence on:
– the peak pressure developed,
– the power produced and
– the smoothness with which the forces are transmitted to the
piston.
• The rate of pressure rise is mainly dependent upon the mass rate
of combustion of mixture in the cylinder.

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• It is clear from the figure that with lower rate of combustion longer
time is required for the completion of combustion which
necessitates the initiation of burning at an early point on the
compression stroke.

• Curve I is for a high,

• Curve II for the normal
• Curve III for a low rate
of combustion.

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 Abnormal combustion
• Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its
normal course leading to loss of performance and possible damage to the
engine. This type of combustion may be termed as an abnormal
combustion or knocking combustion.
• The consequences of this abnormal combustion process are: loss of
power, recurring pre-ignition and mechanical damage to the engine.
• During the pre-flame reaction period if the flame front could move from
BB' to only CC' then the charge ahead of CC' would auto-ignite. Because
of the auto-ignition, another flame front starts traveling in the opposite
direction to the main flame front. When the two flame fronts collide, a
severe pressure pulse is generated.

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 6.6. Knock In SI Engines
• If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel and remains at or above this temperature
during the period of pre-flame reactions (ignition delay),
spontaneous ignition or auto-ignition occurs at various pin-point
locations. This phenomenon is called knocking (detonation).
• Knocking is very much dependent on:
– the properties of fuel if the critical temperature is reached and
maintained,
– the ignition lag is shorter than the time it takes for the flame
front to burn through the unburned charge then the end charge
will detonate.

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 Knock Limited Parameters
• Knock Limited Compression Ratio:
– is obtained by increasing the compression ratio on a variable
compression ratio engine until incipient knocking is observed.
• Knock Limited Inlet Pressure
– The inlet pressure can be increased by opening the throttle or
increasing supercharger delivery pressure until incipient knock is
observed.
• Knock Limited Indicated Mean Effective Pressure: Klimep
– An useful measure of knocking tendency called the
performance number, has been developed from the concept of
knock limited indicated mean effective pressure.

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 Effect Of Engine Variables On Knock
• The major factors involved in either producing or preventing knock
are:
1. Density Factor
• Similarly, any factor which reduces the density of the charge tends
to reduce knocking by providing lower energy release.
• The effect of the following parameters which are directly or
indirectly connected with temperature, pressure and density factors
on the possibility of knocking is discussed below.
– Compression Ratio
– Mass of Inducted Charge
– Inlet Temperature of the Mixture
– Temperature of the Combustion Chamber Walls
– Retarding the Spark Timing:
– Power Output of the Engine
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 2. Time Factor
• The following factors, in most cases, reduce the possibility of
knocking.
 Turbulence • Combustion chamber shape
 Flame travel Distance • Spark plug position
 Engine size
3. Composition Factors
• The composition of combustible mixture has crucial role in
controlling the knock.
– Fuel-Air Ratio
• Maximum flame speed is obtained when Φ≈1.1-1.2 whereas
Φ=1 gives minimum reaction time for auto-ignition.
– Octane Value of the Fuel
• A higher self-ignition temperature of the fuel would reduce
the tendency of knocking.
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 6.7. Combustion Chambers For SI Engines
• The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an
important influence on the engine performance and its knocking
tendencies.
• The important requirements of an SI engine combustion chamber
are: to provide high power output, high thermal efficiency and
smooth engine operation.
• The design involves the shape of the combustion chamber, the
location of spark plug and the location of inlet and exhaust valves.
• The six basic types of combustion chamber are:
1. Hemispherical
2. Bowl-in-piston
3. Lozenge
4. Split-level
5. Wedge
6. Pentroof
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 1. Hemispherical chamber
• This is a classic type for high-output engines combustion chamber.
• It is also recognized as offering a beneficial reduction in harmful
exhaust emissions.
• The sparking plug is usually sited very close to the central axis of
the chamber, so that flame travel distances are minimized and
practically equalized for good detonation control.

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 2. Lozenge chamber
• It is now little used type.
• In this type a spark plug is usually biased slightly towards the
exhaust valve for good detonation control.
• A certain amount of compression turbulence is provided by a
squish area.

Lozenge combustion chamber

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 3. Wedge chamber
• The circular part follows the cylinder opening. This circular portion
tapers uniformly away from where the sparking plug is situated in
its side wall and terminates at the approach to a very narrow
squish area (Figure below). The valves are generally mounted in-
line to facilitate flow of gases for good volumetric efficiency.
• However, in light of current requirements to reduce harmful
exhaust emissions, without incurring unacceptable penalties in fuel
consumption and power output, the greater ratio of total surface
area to volume of the combustion space tends to put the wedge
chamber at a disadvantage compared with the hemispherical type.

Basic layout of wedge combustion chamber

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 4. Bowl-in-piston chamber
• It is more recent origin than the wedge type.
• A high thermal efficiency is usually claimed for this type of
combustion chamber, since its flat roof contributes to a low ratio of
total surface area to volume.
• This chamber affords minimum and near-equal flame travels, the
sparking plug being positioned as close as is practicable to the
central axis of the chamber.
• The disadvantage of this type of combustion chamber are:
– it tends to make for a heavier piston construction.
– hotter running piston tends to increase Nox production.

Basic layout of bowl-in-piston combustion chamber

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 5. Split-level chamber
• This is also known as the May fireball.
• The essential features of the split-level combustion chamber are a
lower-level and therefore shallow collecting zone beneath the inlet
valve, and an upper level formed by a deeply recessed exhaust
valve that constitutes the combustion zone of the chamber.
• This type of chamber allows an increase in engine compression
ratio without incurring detonation.

• The advantages generally attributed to the

split-level type of combustion chamber are
those of reduced fuel consumption, increased
thermal efficiency and reduction in harmful
exhaust emissions.

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Basic layout of split-level combustion chamber
 6. Pentroof chamber
• It is used in ‘multiple valves’ signifies that each cylinder has more
than one inlet and one exhaust valve.
• The four-square arrangement of the valves allows the spark plug
to be centrally positioned in the combustion chamber (Figure
below), so that flame travels can be both equalized and minimized
for good detonation control. An increase in compression ratio may
then be possible to provide better performance and fuel economy.

Plan view of four-valve combustion chamber

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 6.8. Combustion In C.I. Engines
• In the CI engine,
– only air is compressed through a high compression ratio (18:1 to
24:1) raising its temperature and pressure to a high value.
– Fuel is injected through one or more jets into this highly
compressed air in the combustion chamber.
– the fuel jet disintegrates into a core of fuel surrounded by a spray
envelope of air and fuel particles
– This spray envelope is created both by the atomization and
vaporization of the fuel.
– The turbulence of the Air in the combustion chamber passing
across the jet tears the fuel particles from the core. A mixture of
air and fuel forms at some location in the spray envelope and
oxidation starts.
– As soon as this vapor and the air reach the level of the auto-
ignition temperature and if the local AIF ratio is within the
combustible range, ignition takes place.
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 6.9. Stages Of Combustion In CI Engines
• The combustion in a CI engine is considered to be taking place in
four stages:
A. Ignition delay period (A-B)
B. Flame propagation or Rapid combustion (B-C)
C. Direct combustion or Controlled combustion (C-D) and
D. After-burning (D-E).

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 A. First stage: Ignition Delay Period (A-B)
• This is the phase preparatory to combustion in which the fine
particles of the injected fuel evaporate and mix with the air in the
cylinder to form an ignitable mixture.
• This period is counted from the start of injection to the point
where the pressure time curve separates from the motoring curve
indicated as start of combustion.
• The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great influence on
both engine design and performance.
• It is extremely important because of its effect on:
– the combustion rate - knocking
– engine starting ability - the presence of smoke in the exhaust.

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• The ignition delay period can be divided into two parts,
1. Physical Delay:
– The physical delay is the time between the beginning of
injection and the attainment of chemical reaction conditions.
– During this period: the fuel is atomized, vaporized, mixed with
air and raised to its self-ignition temperature.
• This physical delay depends on the type of fuel, Injection
Pressure, Combustion chamber temperatures and pressure,
Turbulence,
2. Chemical Delay:
– During the chemical delay, reactions start slowly and then
accelerate until ignition takes place.
– Generally, the chemical delay is larger than the physical delay.
– it depends on the temperature of the surroundings.
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 Factors Affecting The Delay Period
• Many design and operating factors affect the delay period.
• The important ones are:
 compression ratio
 engine speed
 atomization of fuel and
duration of injection
 injection timing
 quality of the fuel
 intake temperature
 intake pressure

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 B. Second stage:
Flame propagation (Rapid Combustion) (B-C)
• It is also called the uncontrolled combustion.
• It is counted from end of delay period or the beginning of the
combustion to the point of maximum pressure on the indicator
diagram.
• By the end of the first stage, a combustible mixture has formed in
various parts of the cylinder, with ignition starting in several places.
• These flames propagate at extremely high speed so that the mixture
burns almost explosively, and causes the pressure within the
cylinder to rise rapidly. Thus, this is sometimes called the explosive
combustion stage.
• It may be allotted that the pressure reached during the period of
rapid combustion will depend on
– the duration of the delay period (the longer the delay the more
rapid and higher pressure rise since more fuel would have
accumulated in the cylinder during the delay period).
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 C. Third stage:
Direct combustion Period of Controlled Combustion (C-D)
• The temperature and pressure in the second stage is already quite
high.
• Hence the fuel droplets injected during the second stage burn faster
with reduced ignition delay as soon as they find the necessary
oxygen and any further pressure rise is controlled by the injection
rate.
• During this stage due to immediate fuel ignition by the flame in the
cylinder. The combustion can be controlled by the amount of fuel
injected in this stage, so this is also described as the controlled
combustion period.

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 D. Fourth stage: After burning (D-E)
• The injection ends at point D, but the fuel not yet in the combusted
state continues to burn.
• The unburnt and partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion
chamber start burning as soon as they come into contact with the
oxygen.
• This process continues for a certain duration called the after-
burning period.
• Usually this period starts from the point of maximum cycle
temperature and continues over a part of the expansion stroke.
• Rate of after-burning depends on
– the velocity of diffusion and
– turbulent mixing of unburnt and partially burnt fuel with the air.

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 6.10. KNOCK IN CI ENGINES
• If the ignition delay is prolonged, or if too much fuel vaporizes
during the ignition delay period, there will be an excessive amount
of mixture burning at one time during the second (flame
propagation) stage, causing too rapid a pressure rise in the cylinder
and thus, noticeable vibration and noise. This is known as diesel
knock.
• To prevent diesel knock, it is necessary to avoid this sudden pressure
rise by either making the mixture ignite easily at low temperature,
shortening the ignition delay time, or reducing the amount of fuel
injected during the ignition delay time.
• The following methods are employed:
a. Using fuel with a high cetane value,
b. Raising the air temperature and pressure at the start of injection,
c. Reducing the injection volume at the start of fuel injection,
Raising the combustion chamber temperature
d. 05/11/19 34
 6.11. Comparison Of Knock In SI & CI Engines
• knocking in SI engines and CI engines is fundamentally due to the
auto-ignition of the fuel-air mixture. In both the cases, the knocking
depends on the auto-ignition of the fuel-air mixture.
• In the SI engine,
• the auto-ignition of the end gas away from the spark plug, most
likely near the end of the combustion causes knocking.
• In the CI engine,
• the auto-ignition of the charge causing knocking is at the start of
combustion.

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 6.12. Combustion Chambers For CI Engines
• The most important function of the CI engine combustion chamber
is to provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short time.
• In order to achieve this, an organized air movement called the swirl
is provided to produce high relative velocity between the fuel
droplets and the air.
• The onset of combustion will cause an added turbulence that can be
guided by the shape of the combustion chamber. Since the
turbulence is necessary for better mixing, and the fact that it can be
controlled by the shape of the combustion chamber.
• CI engine combustion chambers are classified into two
categories:
1. Direct-Injection (DI)
2. Indirect-Injection (IDI)
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 1. Direct-Injection (DI)
• This type of combustion chamber is also called an open combustion
chamber. In this type the entire volume of the combustion chamber is
located in the main cylinder and the fuel is injected into this volume.
• Its advantages are: easy starting, high thermal efficiency and low fuel
consumption. These advantages derive from a compact combustion space
that reduces heat loss (minimum power loss).
• A disadvantage is that the combustion process is not very rapid, owing to
the rather long distances the fuel sprays have to penetrate the cylinder air
charge.

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 2. Indirect-Injection (IDI) Type:
• In this type of combustion chambers, the combustion space is divided into
two parts, one part in the main cylinder and the other part in the cylinder
head.
• The fuel-injection is effected usually into that part of the chamber located
in the cylinder head.
• Indirect-injection diesel engine ran more smoothly, and less noisily than its
direct-injection.
• The rate of pressure rise in the cylinder is reduced. From this it also
follows that the engine structure is not so highly stressed, so it can
therefore be made less heavy than is possible with direct-injection.
• These chambers are classified further into:
1. Swirl chamber
• in which compression swirl is generated.
2. Pre combustion chamber
• in which combustion swirl is induced.
– Air cell chamber
• in which both compression and combustion swirl are induced
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05/11/19 39
Indirect-Injection (IDI) Combustion Chamber
• The main advantages of the indirect-injection combustion
chambers are:
– injection pressure required is low
– direction of spraying is not very important.
• These chambers have the following serious drawbacks which have
made its application limited.
– Poor cold starting performance requiring heater plugs.
– Specific fuel consumption is high because there is a loss of
pressure due to air motion through the duct and heat loss due to
large heat transfer area.

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