Introduction

Data Communications and Computers

Defining Data and Information
Table of Contents
Data Communications System Overview
Communications Task

Networking Basics

Network Components
Network Models
Network Types
LANs, MANs, WANs

Theoretical Network

The Role of Reference Model

The OSI Model

Network Protocols

Understanding Packets
Network Protocols
IP Addressing
 Networking Connections
Network Interface Cards
Common Connector Types
Table of Contents
Network Media

Real-world Networks
Network Topology

Enterprise and Distributed Networks

Repeaters
Bridges
Hubs
Modems
Routers
Gateways

Fault Tolerance and Troubleshooting

Fault Tolerance
Troubleshooting
 INTRODUCTION
TO

NETWORKING

Distinguish the difference between data and information

Chapter 1

Define and describe data communications in the general

concept of a communication

Identify various communication tasks required to reform

efficient transfer of information.
Early Communication Systems Introduction

Example of communication

Fig.1.1. Smoke Signals Fig.1.2. Drumbeats

Early Communication Systems Introduction
Example of communication

Hand flag signals

Early Communication Systems Introduction
Morse Code by
Samuel Finley Breese
Morse
Early Communication Systems Introduction

Baudot Codes and

Keyboard

Emile Baudot
Famous Computer Codes in Early 60s
Introduction
 CCITT (Consultative Committee on
International Telegraphy and Telephony)
International - A 5-bit code used for telex
transmission
 ExtendedBinary-Coded-Decimal Interchange
Code(EBCDIC)- An 8-bit code mainly for mainframe
computers
 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)- A 7-bit code for personal and
mobile computers
 Extended ASCII- An 8-bit code also used for
personal and mobile computers
Data Communications And Computers Introduction
In the 1950s,
communications between data processing
equipment started to pick up.

mainframe environment.

dumb terminals are connected to a huge host

computer.

Time-sharing
Process all by mainframe
Data Communications And Computers Introduction
W/ Fast host processor speed, it would appear to the
terminal that the host is communicating to it
exclusively.

Limitations:
The system is confined to a single area,
usually in just one room in a building.
Mainframes were too large and too
expensive for everyone to own.
Terminals can only access the host
computer to which it is physically connected.
Data was only being processed in batches;
updated information was not readily
available.
Data Communications And Computers Introduction

1960,s through the early 80’s,

as technology improved rapidly and the

cost shrunk considerably, more computers
in more locations became connected.
 Introduction
standalone environment.
PC’s own processor and storage allowing it to process data on its
Personal Computers

own.

Sneakernet
which involves storing the files in a floppy disk and physically
moving the floppy disk to the PC where the files are to be
transferred.

This system was good while the files remained small; with
today’s file size and the unreliability of floppy disks, sneakernet
is very inconvenient and impractical.
Mainframe System
Introduction

Mainframe Computer
Mainframe System
Introduction

Dump Terminal

Server

Dump Terminal

Dump Terminal

Dump Terminal
Dump Terminal

Mainframe Environment
 Introduction
Marriage of computer science and communication

Connecting hundreds of million of lives word-wide!

Improvement

Removed the difference between equipment uesd for

data and processing and those used for transmission
and switching data!

Data, voice and video signal are no longer different

from one to another!

Processing can be done by single computer!

Defining Data And Information
Introduction
DATA

Refers to the representation of facts, concepts, or

instructions in a formalized manner suitable for
communication, interpretation or processing by human
beings or by automatic means.

INFORMATION

Described as the meaning that is currently assigned to

data by means of the conventions applied to those data.
Data Communications System Overview Introduction

Data communications is the exchange of

information in binary form between two connected
devices, whether directly or through a network.

Transmitter Receiver

User 1 Transmission Link User 2

Input Output
 Introduction
1. Transmission system utilization
It is the need to efficiently use various transmission
Communications Tasks

facilities that are commonly shared by other devices.

2. Interfacing
It refers to the need to convert the input data (digital) into a
suitable form (analog) for transmission; and vice-
versaduring reception.

3. Synchronization
It allows the receiver to determine when a signal begins,
and when it ends, and how long each signal element is.

4.Exchange management
It is the agreement between devices on various conventions,
such as transmission method (simplex, half or full duplex),
data block length, data format, error detection and
correction, and how fast data must be sent.
 Introduction
5. Signal Generation
Communications Tasks

It is the actual transmission of data in the form and

intensity required by the medium and receiver.

6. Addressing and routing

It ensures that in multi-user environment, the information
is sent to the correct destination, and that the best possible
route to this destination is chosen.

7.Recovery
It allows the system to resume an activity previously
interrupted by an unexpected fault in the system.
 Introduction
8. Protection
Communications Tasks

It assures sender of data that only the intended receiver

actually receives the data in its original form.

9. System management
It is required for configuring and monitoring the system,
allowing it to react rationally to failures and overloads, and
to effectively plan for future expansion.
Chapter 2

NETWORKING BASICS
Networking Basics What is Networking?

“Networking” is a combination of techniques,

physical connections, and computer programs
used to link two or more computers.

Network users are able to share files,

printers, and other resources; send
electronic messages; and run programs
on other computers.”
Networking Basics Objective of Networking

…main objective of data communication

systems
“to share information between two
devices (commonly computers), which
are connected either directly or through
a network.”
Networking Basics Resources Commonly Shared in Network

Files

Database

Printers & Fax Machines

Cameras & Scanners

Networking Basics Computer Network

...”a collection of hardware and software

components connected by some means with
the purpose of sharing information and
resources”
Networking Basics Advantages

1. Improved Productivity

2. Lower Total Cost

3. Improved Communication
 Disadvantages

1. Requires a highly skilled personnel

Networking Basics

2. Puts your system at risk from hackers

and computer virus infection

3. If the main computer goes down, it could

mean huge losses to a company.
 Network Components

1.Server - usually a high-end computer that

provides services to other computers on the
Networking Basics

network.

2. Client - a computer that avails of the

services provided by the server, usually
less powerful than the server.

3. Resources - anything that is available

to the client on the network. This could
be printers, hard disks, fax machine,
software, modems, etc.
 Network Components

4. Media- the physical

Networking Basics

connection between devices on

the network.
5. Peer- a computer that is both a
server and a client

6. User- a person that avails of the

network resources through one of
the network clients
Networking Basics Network Components

7. Protocol- the language that the

computers on the network use. It
defines the rules of communication
for the computers.
Networking Basics Network Components

Router/Switch/Hub
 Network Models

1. Centralized Computing
Networking Basics

2. Distributed Computing

3. Collaborative Computing
 Network Models

1. Centralized Computing
Networking Basics

The server in this model does everything-

processing, retrieval and storage of data.

no processing is done at the client

Since
computers, each user is assured that everyone is working on
the same piece of information.

This make backing up the data very easy, since

only the one stored in the server needs backing up.
 Network Models
1. Centralized ComputinG Advantages
Networking Basics

Server
Dump Terminal

Dump Terminal

1. Easy back up
Dump Terminal
Dump Terminal

2. Only server needs to be

Dump Terminal

Mainframe
Environment
secured from viruses
3. Lower acquisition cost
 Network Models

1. Centralized Computing
Networking Basics

Disadvantages

1. Effective only for limited number of

clients

2. There is a single point of failure

 Network Models

2.Distributed Computing
Networking Basics

In this setup, all or part of the processing

and data storage is done in the client
computers (front-end). This means faster data
access and processing, and the servers (back-
end) need not be as powerful as in
centralized computing.
Networking Basics Network Models

2.Distributed Computing
Advantages
1. Provides faster data access and
processing
2. Doesn’t need powerful servers
3. Users may run different applications
at the same time
4. Client computers can operate in
stand alone manner
Networking Basics Network Models

2. Distributed Computing
Disadvantages

1. Difficulty in file synchronization

and back up

2. Susceptible to a virus attack

 Network Models

3 . C o l l ab o r a t ive C o m p u t i n g
Networking Basics

It is very similar to distributed

computing; in fact, it has basically the same
strengths and weaknesses.

The main difference lies in the capability of

this model to use the processing
power of other computers to complete
tasks. This network is therefore even faster
than the other two models.
 Network Types

1. Peer to Peer Networking

Networking Basics

2. Server-based Networking

3. Hybrid Networking
 Network Types

1.Peer to Peer Networking

Networking Basics

Computers in this network type are capable of

being both a server and a client.

This peer relationship means that no computer

gets a higher priority in accessing resources. Nor is
there a computer with the sole responsibility of
providing the resources for the network.

Thus there is no centralized control over the

different resources and services in the
network. Microsoft calls this loose federation of
equal computers a workgroup.
Networking Basics Network Types

Peer to Peer Network

 Network Types

1 . Pe e r t o Pe e r
Networking Basics

Advantages
1. Easy installation and configuration
2. Inexpensive to purchase and operate
3. Users have full control over their own resources
4. No additional requirements for operating
systems
5. No expensive administrators needed to
run the network
6. Works well for up to 10 computers
 Network Types

1.Peer to Peer
Networking Basics

Disadvantages
1. Resources are hard to maintain
2. Weak security; only one password for each
resource
3. Scattered data, each machine must be back up
individually
4. Degradation in the performance of a
machine sharing a resource
5. Requires well-trained users
6. Does not work well with more than 10
computers
 Identify the following:
1.It is the combination of techniques, physical
connections, and computer programs used to
Review Questions

link two or more computers.

2.Language of the computers.

3.Models where the server does everything

4.The collection of hardware and software components

connected by some means with the purpose of sharing
information and resources”
5.Also known as the front end computers.

6.Model with the capacity to use the processing power

of other computers on the network.
 Enumerate the following:

7-10. Network resources

Review Questions

11-13. Network Types

14-17. network components

18-20. Network Models

 Network Types

2. Server-based
Networking Basics

The key component here is the server, which is

a powerful computer with its faster CPUs, bigger
memory, larger hard disk and extra peripherals.

With powerful servers, client computers need

not be as powerful.
It also requires a network operating software
(NOS) which requires allocation of expert staff,
which further increases expenses.
 Network Types

2. Server-based
Networking Basics

Advantages
Much more secure with user-level security and Access
Control Lists
Centralized user account and security leading to simplified
administration
Eliminates the need for powerful and expensive
client computers
Easy data backup and file
synchronization
Easily scalable beyond 10
computers
 Network Types

2. Server-based
Networking Basics

Disadvantages
Powerful servers are expensive

At worst, the network could become unusable with

server failure; at best, certain network resources
could be unavailable

Dependent on the network

administrator
Requires specialized software,
further adding to the cost
Networking Basics Server-based network diagram
 TYPES OF SERVERS
Networking Basics

File and Print Servers

Application Servers

Specialized Servers
 TYPES OF SPECIALIZED SERVERS
Networking Basics

Mail Servers
Communication Severs
Domain Controllers

Fax Servers

Web Servers
Networking Basics Network Types

3. Hybrid

It is possible to combine the best of both

worlds by creating a combined peer-to-peer
and server-based network.
Networking Basics

CHOOSING THE RIGHT TYPE OF

NETWORK
 USE PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING ONLY WHEN
ALL OF THESE CIRCUMSTANCES ARE PRESENT:

There are no more than 10 clients, with

Networking Basics

5 being the ideal number.

All network components can fit in one small
area. This means a user does not have to walk
too far to use any of the computers.

The organization is on a strict

budget.
There is no requirement for specialized
servers.
A SERVER-BASED NETWORK WILL BE THE NETWORK TYPE OF
CHOICE IF ANY OF THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS EXIST:

There are more than 10 clients.

Networking Basics

The network requires centralized control, good

security, simplified resource management, or
easy backup.
Specialized servers must be installed to
increase network efficiency.

The network components are

spread over a wide area.
 If there are more than 5 but less than
Networking Basics

10 client computers , but the

network is expected to grow in
the future, or that specialized
servers will be inevitab le, then
it would be best to start with
server based
network.
Operating systems that support peer-to-
peer networking includes Windows for
workgroups, Windows 95/98/2000/2003,
Windows NT Workstation and OS/2,
Windows 7, Windows Vista.

Network operating systems used for

server-based systems include Microsoft
Windows NT, Microsoft Windows 2000
/ 2003, and Novell Netware 3.x/4.x.
 NETWORK SERVICES

File Services
Networking Basics

File Transfer

File Storage and Migration

File Update and Synchronization

Archiving

Print Services
Message Services
Directory Services
Application Services
front-end and back end application
(client-server)
 CLIENT/SERVER CONCEPT
Networking Basics
 Network Classification according to geographical size.
Networking Basics

LAN
MAN
WAN
 Distance
Area
between
Network
computers
10m
100m Local Area
Network
1km

Metropolitan Area
10km Network

100km
Wide Area
Network
1000km

10000km

Classification of Interconnected Computers

 T HEORETICAL
Chapter 3

N ETWORK
 THE ROLE OF A REFERENCE MODEL

Network models provide the much-needed framework and define

the protocols, message formats, and standards to which machines
and software must conform to achieve the required compatibility.

Models provide users with flexibility in configuring

networks and permits mass production of hardware and
software that can be used in a variety of networks.

Network models promote the standards followed by designers

allowing the seamless integration of new products into the existing
networks.

With this, costly program modification will be

avoided.
 THE HIGH-LEVEL OBJECTIVES OF ALL
NETWORK MODELS INCLUDE:

1. Modularity

2. Connectivity
3. Reliability

4. Ease of implementation

5. Ease of use

6. Ease of modification
RULES THAT GOVERN COMMUNICATIONS
 Communication in networks is governed by pre-defined
rules called protocols.
 A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to
perform a communication function is called a protocol suite.
These protocols are implemented in software and hardware

66
that is loaded on each host and network device
 Networking protocols suites describe processes such as:
- The format or structure of the message
- The process by which networking devices share
information about pathways with other networks
- How and when error and system messages are passed
between devices
- The setup and termination of data transfer sessions
 Individual protocols in a protocol suite may be vendor-
specific and proprietary.
THE INTERACTION OF PROTOCOLS

Will learn
more in
TCP/IP
model

 Application protocol – HTTP. HTTP defines the content and

formatting of the requests and responses exchanged between the
client and server
 Transport Protocol – TCP. TCP divides the HTTP messages into
smaller segments. It is also responsible for controlling the size
and rate of message exchange.
 Internetwork Protocol – IP. It encapsulating segments into
packets, assigning the appropriate addresses, and selecting the
best path to the destination host.
 Network Access Protocol – Protocols for data link management 67
and the physical transmission of data on the media.
PROTOCOL SUITES & INDUSTRY
STANDARD
 Many of the protocols that comprise a protocol suite
reference other widely utilized protocols or industry
standards

68
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) or the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 The use of standards in developing and implementing
protocols ensures that products from different
manufacturers can work together for efficient
communications
USING LAYER MODELS
 To visualize the interaction between various
protocols, it is common to use a layered model.
 Benefits of doing so:
- Assists in protocol design, because protocols that

69
operate at a specific layer have defined
information that they act upon and a defined
interface to the layers above and below.
- Fosters competition because products from
different vendors can work together.
- Prevents technology or capability changes in one
layer from affecting other layers above and below.
- Provides a common language to describe
networking functions and capabilities.
PROTOCOL & REFERENCE MODEL
 2 types of networking models
 A protocol model provides a model that closely
matches the structure of a particular protocol suite.
The hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite
typically represents all the functionality required to

70
interface the human network with the data network.
Ex: TCP/IP model
 A reference model provides a common reference for
maintaining consistency within all types of network
protocols and services. A reference model is not
intended to be an implementation specification or to
provide a sufficient level of detail to define precisely
the services of the network architecture. The primary
purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer
understanding of the functions and process involved
Ex: OSI model
THE OSI MODEL
Model of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model is the most common network model used in
computer networking.

Its primary objective is to provide standards that

will become the basis for network design and will
allow flexible interconnection of data
communication systems.

OSI model becomes the framework of most systems

designs supported by major PC networking giants such
as Microsoft and Novell.
Application
Presentation
S es s i o n
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
OSI Reference Model
 To provide a consistent way for an
Application
application to access network
services

To translate, encrypt, convert, Presentation

interpret and compress data
To establish, manage,
Session terminate dialogue between
communicating devices.
To reliably deliver data from
source to destination; to Transport
perform flow control & error
control
Network To route packets from one
network device to another
To organize bits to frames for sequential
transmission; to reassembles the frames
Data link
back into the original information
To transmit bits over a medium;
to establish & maintain physical
Physical link between communicating
devices

The general functions of each layer of the OSI Model

 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 The OSI reference model
is the primary model for
network
communications.
 Allows you to view the
network functions that
occur at each layer.
 It is a framework that
you can use to
understand how
information travels
throughout a network
 7 layers -- each of which
illustrates a particular 75
network function.
 THE OSI MODEL OSI MODEL

The most common network model used

Developed from the late 1970s

to its current form in the mid-1980s by the ISO
Adopted by the CCITT for its standards-making activities

Primary purpose of providing a basis for the development

of standards that relate to the flexible
interconnection of data communication systems.

•Key Benefits of a Layered

Network Model
Standardizes interface
Reduces complexity
Ensures interoperable technology
OSI MODEL
•Application Layer 7
- This top layer defines the language
and syntax that programs use to
communicate with other programs.

•Presentation Layer 6
- When data are transmitted between
different types of computer systems,
the presentation layer negotiates and
manages the way data are represented
and encoded.

•Session Layer 5
-Provides coordination of the
communications in an orderly manner.
-It determines one-way or two-way
communications and manages the
dialog between both parties.
OSI MODEL
•Transport Layer 4
This layer is responsible for overall end to
end validity and integrity of the transmission.

•Network Layer 3
The network layer establishes the route
between the sender and receiver across
switching points, which are typically routers.

•Data Link Layer 2

The data link is responsible for node to node
validity and integrity of the transmission.

•Physical Layer 1
The physical layer is responsible for passing
bits onto and receiving them from the
connecting medium.
OSI MODEL
Seventh Layer - APPLICATION LAYER
-The topmost layer, provides a consistent, neutral interface to the network;
-Protocol and services required to transmit files, exchange messages, connect terminals,
and so on are found here;
-Provides a consistent way for an application to access network services that supports
applications directly, such as network file transfer, print services, message handling, and
database queries;
-A message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point
and exits the OSI reference model's application layer on the receiving computer;
-Application-specific protocol found in this layer; such as ph following
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Line Print Daemon (LPD)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Telnet
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3)
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Network News Transport Protocol (NNTP)
Secure Remote Procedure Call (S-RPC)
Secure Electronic Transaction (SET)
 OSI MODEL
Sixth Layer-Presentation Layer
-To make sure that data sent by the Application layer and received by the Session layer
is in a standard format;

-Data encryption/decryption and data compression/decompression;

-Video format, images, sound, e-mail, document, web pages and so on;

-List of format standard that exist wherein this layer;

American Standard Code for Information Interchange ( ASCII)
Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Mode (EBCDIC)
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)
Joint Photographic Expert Group (JPEG)
Moving Picture Expert Group (MPEG)
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDE)
OSI MODEL
Fifth Layer - The Session layer
-This layer provides the mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the
communicating systems;

-Responsible for establishing, maintaining, terminating communication session between

two computer ;

-3 types of communication that session layer uses:

Simplex
Half-duplex
Full-duplex

-Protocols operate in this session;

Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Network File System (NFS)
Structured Query Language (SQL)
Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
OSI MODEL
Fourth Layer – The Transport Layer

-True source–to–destination layer;

-Message headers and control messages are use for error detection, sequencing
and flow control;

-Connection-oriented;

-Protocols that operate in this layer:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)
OSI MODEL
Third Layer - The Network layer
-Responsible for routing information from one network device to another;

-Routers are among the network device that function in this layer;

-Routing protocol are located at this layer included the following:

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
Internet Packet Exchange (IPX)
Network Address Translation (NAT)
Simple Key Management for Internet Protocols (SKIP)
OSI MODEL
Second Layer - The Data Link layer

-Responsible for formatting the packets from the network layer into the proper format
for transmission;
-Once the frame is formatted, it is send to physical layer for transmission;
-The electrical representation of the data (bit patterns, encoding methods, and tokens)
is known to this layer only;
-Protocols found under at this layer:
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARS)
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

Typical Data Frame/Packets

OSI MODEL
First Layer - The Physical layer

-"hardware layer“

-Physical link between communicating computers;

-Physical structure of the network, the electrical and physical aspects of that medium
used, and encoding and timing of bit transmission and reception;

-Located in this layer are electrical specification, protocols, and interface standard
such as following:
EIA/TIA-232 and EIA/TIA-449
X.21
High-Speed Serial Interface (HSSI)
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
V.24 and V.25
 OSI MODEL

Transmission Media

OSI model uses the layered approach

 OSI MODEL
A B
Application Application

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data Link Data Link

Physical
Physical

Transmission Media

Moving data through the OSI reference model

……It has seven layers, representing different sets of functions;

……The functions of each layer interact only immediately above
and below it;
…...Work in a hierarchy;
…...Sending data - each layer receives the data from the layer above
it;
….. Then the layer sends the data down to the next layer;
….. Receiving data - from the layer beneath it, process it, and sends
it to the layer above it.
 PNEMONICS

 * All People Seem To Need Data Processing

 *Please Do Not Teach Students Pointless Acronyms

 A-P-S-T-N-D-P
 P-D-N-T-S-P-A
TCP/IP MODEL

89
COMPARISON
--Both have application
layers, though they include
very different services
--Both have comparable
transport and network

90
(Internet) layers
--TCP/IP combines the
presentation and session
layer issues into its
application layer
--TCP/IP combines the OSI
data link and physical
layers into one layer
--TCP/IP appears simpler
because it has fewer layers
DATA ENCAPSULATION
 Build the data
 Package the data
for end to end
support
(Segments)
 The data is put
into a packet or
datagram that
contains a
network header
with source and
destination
logical addresses 91
DATA ENCAPSULATION
 Each network
device must put the
packet into a
frame.
 The frame must be
converted into a
pattern of 1s and 0s
(bits)
 ***Data 
Segments 
Packet  Frames
 Bits 92
ADDRESSING IN THE NETWORK
 There are various types of addresses that must be
included to successfully deliver the data from a
source application running on one host to the
correct destination application running on another

93
GETTING DATA TO THE END DEVICE
 The host physical address, is contained in the header of
the Layer 2 PDU, called a frame.
 Layer 2 is concerned with the delivery of messages on a
single local network.
 The Layer 2 address is unique on the local network and

94
represents the address of the end device on the physical
media.
 In a LAN using Ethernet, this address is called the
Media Access Control (MAC) address.
 When two end devices communicate on the local
Ethernet network, the frames that are exchanged
between them contain the destination and source
MAC addresses.
 Once a frame is successfully received by the destination
host, the Layer 2 address information is removed as the
data is decapsulated and moved up the protocol stack to
Layer 3.
GETTING THE DATA THROUGH THE INTERNETWORK
 Layer 3 protocols are primarily designed to move data
from one local network to another local network
within an internetwork.
 Layer 3 addresses must include identifiers that
enable intermediary network devices to locate hosts on
different networks

95
 At the boundary of each local network, an
intermediary network device, usually a router,
decapsulates the frame to read the destination host
address contained in the header of the packet, the
Layer 3 PDU
 Routers use the network identifier portion of this
address to determine which path to use to reach
the destination host.
 N ETWORK
Chapter 4

P ROTOCOLS
 UNDERSTANDING PACKETS

Packets and protocols are the basic elements of data transmission

over the network.

Packets (also known as datagram, frame or cell) and protocols allow

different applications to communicate with any device on the
network.

packets contain information about the source and destination

of the data as well as other control information, while
protocols are used to encapsulate those data and information.
PACKETS MAY VARY IN SIZE AND STRUCTURE, BUT GENERALLY, IT
INCLUDES:

Header –source and

destination address

Payload-data

Footer- trailer-crc
The header section basically includes the source address and destination
address.

The data is the actual information that is being transmitted over the network
from one application to another.

The trailer section contains CRC (cyclic redundancy check) which is a special
algorithm designed to generate a check field used to guard against errors
during transmission.
FUNCTIONS OF PROTOCOLS

1. Segmentation and reassembly- PDU

2. Encapsulation- addresses, error-detection and
protocol control
3. Connection control- connection/connectionless
4. Ordered delivery- in the order
5. Flow control- limit the amount of data
6. Error control- techniques in guarding data
7. Synchronization- communication in proper
timing
8. Addressing- to identify nodes/network
devices
9. Multiplexing - simultaneous connection

10. Transmission services- priority and security

POPULAR PROTOCOL SUITES
 MICROSOFT PROTOCOLS

1. Server Message Block (SMB)

2. NetBIOS

3. NetBEUI

4. Network Driver Interface Specification

(NDIS)
 TCP/IP PROTOCOLS

1. Application layer protocols

2. Transport layer protocols

3. Internet layer protocols.

4. Network layer protocols.

 THE IPX/SPX PROTOCOL SUITE

1. Multiple Link Interface Driver (MLID)

protocol
2. Link Support Layer (LSL) protocol
3. Internetwork Packet Exchanging (IPX)
4. Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)
5. Network Link Services Protocol (NLSP
6. NetWare Core Protocol (NCP)
7. Service Access Protocol (SAP)
 OTHER PROTOCOL SUITE

1. Apple Talk

2. Digital Network Architecture Protocols

3. Ethernet protocol

4. Digital Data Communications Message

Protocol (DDCMP)
 IP ADDRESSING

B e f o r e t wo c o m p u t e r s o n a n e t wo r k c a n
communicate, they need to know how to contact
e a c h o t h e r.

Just as every computer has MAC (physical)

address that is encoded into the network
card; computers also have an IP (logical)
address.

This is an address that is usually set by the

administrator, though the network protocol suite
sometimes automatically sets it.
 IP ADDRESSING

4 bytes/octets 11111111 11111111 11111111 1111111

BINARY NOTATION
11000000 10101000 00000010 00000101

DOTTED-DECIMAL NOTATION
192.168.2.5
 IP ADDRESSING CLASSES
IP Address consists of 32 Bit=4 bytes long
8 bit= representation of 1 byte

The Class A IP Addresses were designed for large networks, Class B for
medium size networks and Class C for smaller networks
Network ID.

It tells us which network the device is part of

Node ID.

It identifies that unique device

within the network.
 IP ADDRESSING

In the above table, you can see the 5 Classes. Our first Class
is A and our last is E. The first 3 classes ( A, B and C) are used to
identify workstations, routers, switches and other devices whereas
the last 2 Classes ( D and E) are reserved for special use.
 IP ADDRESSING CLASSES
Class Address Range Supports

Supports 16 million hosts on

Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254
each of 127 networks.

Supports 65,000 hosts on each of

Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254
16,000 networks.

Supports 254 hosts on each of 2

Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254
million networks.

Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups.

Reserved for future use, or

Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 Research and Development
Purposes.
IP ADDRESSING CLASSES
 IP ADDRESSING CLASSES
Introducing Network ID and Node ID concepts

1) It tells us which network the device is part of (Network ID).

2) It identifies that unique device within the network (Node ID).

 ASSIGNING IP ADDRESSES

192.168.1.8 192.168.1.7

192.168.1.6
192.168.1.4

192.168.1.1

192.168.1.5
192.168.1.2

192.168.1.3
ASSIGNING IP ADDRESSES
 IP ADDRESSING CLASSES
VS.
SUBNET MASK
Class Subnet Mask
A 255 . 0 . 0 . 0
B 255 . 255 . 0 . 0
C 255 . 255 . 255 . 0
127 is for loop-back IP address(to test the NIC if properly
install and configuration of your system.
EX. 127.0.0.1 or 127.10.1.254

0 is for network address.

EX. 192.168.0.0( all host address equal to ZERO)

255 is for broadcast address.

EX. 192.168.0.255
Exercises
B-N to D-D-N

1. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

2. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

D-D-N to B-N

1. 111.56.45.78
2. 75.45.34.78
Exercises
B-N to D-D-N

1. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

2. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111
ANSWER
1. 129.11.11.239

2. 249.155.251.15

D-D-N to B-N

1. 111.56.45.78
2. 75.45.34.78
ANSWER
1. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
2. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110
 NETWORK
Chapter 5

CONNECTIONS
UNDERSTANDING NETWORK
INTERFACE CARDS (NICS)
 TYPES OF LAN CARD

With RJ-45 Connector With RJ-45 and AUI-

Port
 TYPES OF LAN CARD

With BNC Connector With USB-Port

Connector
 TYPES OF LAN CARD

PCMCIA LAN Card

PCI Wireless LAN
Card
DATA BUS
ISA BUS
PCI BUS
PC CARD
PC CARD
 PROCED TO ACT. OF LANCARD
INSTALLATION
TO BE ANSWER IN THIS ACTIVITY
1.WHAT DID YOU NOTICE AFTER THE COMPUTER BOOT IN
WINDOWS?
( NEW HARDWARE FOUND!)
2. HOW TO INSTALL THE DRIVER OF LANCARD/NIC?
3. CHECK THE STATUS OF YIUR CONNECTION; IF YOU PLUG THE
CABLE WHAT HAPPEN? UNPLUG CABLE?
4.WHAT IS YOUR MAC ADDRESS? (NETWORK STATUS-DETAILS)
LOCIGAL ADDRESS
CLASS IP ADD?
NETWORK ID?
HOST ID?
SUBNET MASK?
BROADCAST ADDRESS
5. WHAT IS THE BARND/MODEL OF YOUR LANCARD? ( MY COMP-
RIGHT CLICK-MANAGE-DEVICE MANAGER)
CLEAN-UP TIME!!
UNINSTALL DRIVER OF LAN-CARD/NIC

SHUT-DOWN THE COMPUTER

REMOVE THE LAN-CARD/NIC

ARRANGE COMPUTER…
TRANSCEIVER TYPE
&

ADAPTER PORTS
T / BNC CONNECTOR
AUI / DIX CONNECTOR
CONNECTION OF THICKNET
USING VAMPIRE TAP
AUI TO RJ-45 CONNECTOR
TYPES OF CABLE
COAX CABLE
STP/UTP
 STRAIGHT-THROUGH CABLE
The standard in the picture below is called the T-568B

You use this type of cable to connect a PC to a hub/switch

or a router to a switch.
 STRAIGHT-THROUGH CABLE

The standard above was called the T-568A

 CROSS-OVER CONNECTION

The purpose of a crossover cable is to connect one device, directly,

to another device, without a hub or switch in the middle. Usually, the
hub/switch performs the crossover for you. So, you can use a
crossover cable to connect a PC to a PC, directly, without any hub or
switch. You can also use a crossover cable to connect two switches
together.
 UTP CABLE
Table A-1: 10Base-T Cable Pin-out PinSignalNote1
pin
1 TX+
2 TX-
3 RX+
6 RX-

Pins 4, 5, 7, and 8
are not used.
 ROLLED CABLE
What are Rolled Cables?
In the Cisco world, a rolled cable is a cable used to manage a router or switch from the
console port of that device. This cable is usually used when configuring one of these
devices for the first time. A rolled cable connects the PC’s serial port (using a DB9
to RJ45 adaptor) to the router or switch’s console port. A rolled cable looks just like an
Ethernet cable. The funny thing is that a rolled cable isn’t an Ethernet cable at all. In fact,
it is a serial cable. In a rolled cable, Pin 1 connects to Pin 8 on the other side. Here is the
pinout for a rolled cable:
Male Male
RJ-45 RJ-45
1 BLU 8
2 ORN 7
3 BLK 6
4 GRN 5
5 RED 4
6 YEL 3
7 BRN 2
8 GRY 1
You cannot use a rolled cable for an Ethernet cable, nor can you use an Ethernet cable
for a rolled cable. What you can do is take a straight-through Ethernet cable, cut off one
end, flip over the wires, and re-crimp it to make your own rolled cable.
FIBER OPTIC
SELECTING MEDIA
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED:

Cable Cost

Cost of Installations

Distance Limitations

Numbers of Nodes Supported

Transmission Speed

Interference

Security
 DISTANCE LIMITATIONS

CABLE MEDIA MAXIMUM DISTANCE PER SEGMENT

Fiber-optic 2000 meters

Thicknet coax 500 meters

Thiinnet coax 185 meters

Twisted-pair 100 meters

 NUMBERS OF NODES SUPPORTED

NETWORK MAXIMUM NUMBER OF NODES

Thicknet coax 100

Thinnet coax 30

UTP/STP 1024
PROCED TO ACT. OF UTP CABLING
TO BE ANSWER IN THIS ACTIVITY
1.WHAT ARE THE COLOR OF INDIVIDUAL WIRES IN UTP CAT5E CABLE?
2.USES OF STRAIGHT-THROUGH CABLE?
CROSS-OVER CONNENCTION?
 REAL-WORLD
Chapter 6

NETWORKS

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
 A network topology is the arrangement of computers,
cables, and other components on a network.

The type of topology you use affects the type and

capabilities of the network’s hardware, its management,
and possibilities for future expansion.

Each topology is suited to specific tasks and has its own

advantages and disadvantages

Topology is both physical and logical.

 A physical network describes how the network has been
cabled.

Logical network describes how the network operates and

describes as well the way the network data flows through
the physical components.
FOUR BASIC TOPOLOGY
Bus Topology
Computers are connected to a common, shared
cable.
Star Topology
Computers are connected to cable segments that
branch out from a central location, or hub.
Ring Topology
Computers are connected to a cable that forms a
loop around a central location.
Mesh Topology
Computers on the network are connected to every
other computer by cable.
The choice of topology is dependent upon the
type and number of equipments being used;
planned applications; rate of data transfer;
required response times and cost.
 Consists of numbers of computers in a row
connected by a single cable segment called
trunk, also known as backbone or segment.
Bus Topology

terminator trunk
Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to
Limits on cable length and Workstation numbers
implement

Low Cost Difficult to isolate network faults

Easy to extend A segment cable fault affects all workstations

As the number of workstations increase, the speed

of the network slows down
 Ring Topology logically connects all computers with a cable that loops
around, thus, terminators are not necessary.
Ring Topology

Signals travel in one direction on a ring while they are passed from
one computer to the next.

Ring topology provides a reliable signal that can travel large

network because the signal is regenerated by each workstation when
passed on to its neighbor.
Thus, it provides high performance for a large number of users.

Ring topology frequently use token passing.

Logical Implementation of Ring Topology
 Multiple Access Unit

Physical Implementation of Ring Topology

 Advantages Disadvantages

Provides an orderly network Costly Wiring

Equal access for all users Difficult Connections

Each workstation has full

access Expensive Adaptor Cards
speed to the ring

As workstation numbers
Malfunctioning workstations and
increase
cables create problems for the
performance diminishes
entire network
slightly
 When a computer or other networking component
transmits a signal to the network, the signal travels to the
hub, which forwards the signal simultaneously to all other
Star Topology

components connected to the hub.

Star topology is used to connect computers in a workgroup or

departmental local area network (LAN) using a hub.

It can also be used to connect workgroup or departmental hubs using a

master hub or switch.

This is a special star topology called either cascading hubs or star-

wired topology.
Star Topology
 Advantages Disadvantages

Hub can be a single point of

Easy to add new workstations
failure

Hubs are slightly more expensive

Centralized control
than thin-Ethernet

Centralized network/hub Requires more cable than most

monitoring other topologies
 Mesh Topology is a network topology in which additional
networking components are used to provide redundant data
paths.
Mesh Topology

This topology provides the highest fault tolerance that is if a wire, hub,
switch, or other component fails, data can travel along an alternate path.

But this requires a large amount of cable and can quickly become
confusing.

Mesh networks can use the following topologies:

Full mesh topology that provides a direct link between each pair of
nodes on the backbone network ;and

Partial mesh topology that only includes some redundant data paths
to provide some level of fault tolerance.
Mesh Topology
 Advantages Disadvantages

Enhanced fault tolerance Difficult to install and

provided by redundant links maintain

Costly to provide
Easy to troubleshoot
redundant links
Chapter 7

ENTERPRISE AND DISTRIBUTED NETWORK

 REPEATERS
Repeater is one of the conceptually simplest
devices in the network.

Although they are not necessary for functionality,

allow the extension of a network beyond the
physical limits of cabling.

A repeater accomplishes this simply by

repeating packets from one side of the wire
to another while amplifying the signal.
The 5-4-3 rule
ADVANTAGES OF USING REPEATERS

•can easily extend the length of a network

•requires no processing overhead

•allows the connection of segments from the same network type

that use different type of cable
DISADVANTAGES OF USING REPEATERS

•they cannot be used to connect segments of different network

architectures (i.e. cannot join Ethernet and Token Ring)

•they cannot be used to segment traffic on a network to reduce

congestion

•the number of repeaters that cannot be used at once is limited

•they do not provide addressing information

 BRIDGES
A bridge is used either to extend or to segment
networks.
They can be used both to join dissimilar media
such as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling
and fiber-optic cabling, and to join different
network architectures such as Token Ring and
Ethernet.
Bridges regenerate signals but do not
perform any protocol conversion, so the same
networking protocol (such as TCP/IP) must be
running on both network segments connected to
the bridge.
 Advantages of using
Bridges
•extend network segments by connecting them together to make
one logical network

•they segment traffic between networks by filtering data if it does

not need to pass

•they can connect similar network types with different cabling

•special translational bridges can connect different network

types together
 Disadvantages of using
Bridges
•process information about the data they receive which can slow
performance

•bridges pass all broadcast

•cost more than repeaters due to extra intelligence

 ETHERNET HUBS

Also called a repeater hub, the basic networking

component used in traditional 10-Mbps Ethernet
networks to connect network stations to form a
local area network (LAN).

Hubs can be used for:

•Connecting about a dozen computers to form a

workgroup or departmental LAN

•Connecting other hubs in a cascaded star topology to

form a larger LAN of up to roughly a hundred computers
 HUBS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS:

•Passive Hub.
Its function is to receive data from one port of the hub
and send it out to other ports.

•Active Hub.
It provides the same functionality of a passive hub
with an additional feature. The signal received from
one port is regenerated (amplified) and retransmitted
to the other ports on the hub.
 MODEMS

The term “ m o d e m ” (which actually

stands for “modulator/demodulator”)
converts the digital signal coming from the
computer into an analog signal that can be
carried over a Plain Old Telephone Service
(POTS) line.
 MODEMS GENERALLY HAVE TWO
INTERFACES:

•An RS-232 serial transmission interface for

connecting to the DTE, usually the computer

•An RJ-11 telephone interface for connecting to the

4-wire PSTN telephone outlet in the local loop
connection
 MODEM TYPES CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO
CATEGORIES:

•Asynchronous modems
Developed especially for use with telephone lines.
Data transmission is not coordinated between the
sending and receiving computers..

•Synchronous modems
It uses careful timing and coordination to send
large blocks of data (frames) made up of multiple
bytes.
 ROUTERS

Routers are used to segment large networks and

join LANs to wide area networks (WANs), and they
form the basis of the public packet-switched TCP/IP
network known as the Internet.
Routers can…

•more advanced devices that operate on the Network layer and

are used to connect separate networks to form an internetwork

•can be used like bridges to connect multiple network segments

and at the same time filter traffic

•can successfully route a packet through the internetwork, a

router must determine the packet path
 BROUTER

•special kind of router

•a hybrid of both a bridge and a router, and is useful

for networks with both routable and non-routable
protocols
Advantages of using Router

•they used the highest level of intelligence to route data

accordingly

•can also act as abridge to handle nonroutable protocols such as

NETBEUI

•they can connect networks of different physical media and

network architectures

•can handle traffic by not forwarding broadcast or corrupt

packets
 Disadvantages of using
Router
•its higher level of intelligence takes more processing time, which
can affect performance

•routers are very complicated, which makes installation and

maintenance difficult

•they are more expensive

•dynamic routing updates can increase network traffic

 GATEWAYS

Gateway is a term for a broad category of network

components that allow communication
between different networking architectures
and different protocols.

A gateway is usually a dedicated device or a set

of services running on a dedicated computer.
Gateways are essentially devices that direct
network traffic in some fashion and translate
that information.
 FAULT TOLERANCE
Chapter 8

AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
 FAULT TOLERANCE: SAFEGUARDING THE
DATA

All networks should be prepared to any failure or

problem it may encounter.

This is the reason why hardware and software tools are

developed to assists the network administrator in
monitoring and maintaining the network as well as in
providing means to recuperate in case the network
fails.

Part of every plan of any institution or company is

how to deal with total or partial loss of data since loss of
critical information can be very devastating.
 SAMPLES OF NETWORKS’ THREATS

Disk failures caused by hardware failure, power outages, or

improper use
Network problems leading to lost packets that are not acknowledged
because of router congestion or other situations.

Virus infection, resulting in corrupted files.

Sabotage by hackers resulting in erased data.

Theft of hardware from the premises.

Forces of nature also pose a threat: fires, floods, and other natural
disasters can cause damage to equipment and loss of data.
 DATA BACKUP
There are five types of backup that can be performed on either the server or
workstation:

Normal backup or full backup

Incremental backup

Differential backup

Copy backup

Daily backup
 Normal backup or Full backup

•archives all selected files and marks each as

having been backed up.

•allows for the fastest restoration because it has

only the most recent files on it.

•performed at least once on all the contents of

the hard drive, including the applications.
 Incremental backup

•archives only those files created or changed

since the last normal backup.

•marks the files as being backed up.

 Differential backup

•archives only those files that have been created

or changed since the last normal backup.

•does not mark the files as backed up; it relies

on the integrity of the last normal backup
records.
 Copy backup

•archives all selected files, but does not mark

these files as backed up.

•allows the normal markings of a normal backup

to remain valid.
 Daily backup

•archives all selected files that have been

modified on that day.

•does not mark the files as backed-up.

 STEPS WHEN CREATING A PLAN FOR
DISASTER RECOVERY POLICY:

•Decide what kind of backup storage devices to

use.

•Decide whether to back up servers with

dedicated, locally connected storage devices or
over the network to centralized backup libraries.

•Decide whether individual users’ workstations

should also be backed up.
 STEPS WHEN CREATING A PLAN FOR
DISASTER RECOVERY POLICY:

•Decide how to secure the storage of backup

media.

•Decide what kind of backup strategy to employ.

•Assign various aspects of the backup procedure

to the responsible party.
 STEPS WHEN CREATING A PLAN FOR
DISASTER RECOVERY POLICY:

•Test backups periodically to ensure that they are

actually readable.

•Prepare documentation to ensure that backups are

according to schedule and that correct backups
are being restored to the system.
 REDUNDANT ARRAY OF INEXPENSIVE DISKS
(RAID)
RAID LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Level 0 Disk stripping
Level 1 Disk mirroring
Disk striping across disks. Also maintaining error connection
Level 2 codes across the disks.

Same as level 2 except the error correction information is

Level 3 stored as parity information on one disk.

Employs striping data in much larger blocks than level 2 and

Level 4 3. Parity information is kept on a single disk.

Extends level 4 striping to place parity information across the

Level 5 disks. Block-level stripping with distributed parity.

Same RAID 5, but more- it calculates two sets of parity

Level 6 information for each parcel of data. Block-level stripping with
dual distributed parity.

Level 7 Asynchronous, cached striping with dedicated parity.

 FIREWALL

Firewall is any system or device that allows safe

network traffic to pass while restricting or denying
unsafe traffic.

Firewalls are usually dedicated machines running at

the gateway point between your local network and
the outside world, and are used to control who has
access to your private corporate network from the
outside.

In today’s networking environment in which enterprise

networks are connected to the Internet – inviting hackers to
attempt unauthorized access to valuable business
information – a corporate firewall is essential.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY
(UPS)

A device that can temporarily provide power to key

components of a network if a general power failure
happens.
 VIRUS PROTECTION

Here are some precautions to prevent

viruses:

•Never use a program from an unknown origin.

•Be careful when copying files with the COPY *.*

command.

•Use some type of file level security to limit who

can execute or copy programs to network disk.
 TROUBLESHOOTING

Logical Troubleshooting Methodology:

•Determine which areas of the network are

infected.

•Identify any differences between the affected

areas and the unaffected areas.

•Restart affected hardware.

•Segment the affected area; divide the area in
half.
•If the problem is not found, it’s time to get some
tools out.