Electric Circuit

Week 8, Basic AC Circuit

Iwan Cony Setiadi

Engineering Physics Department
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember
2019
 Sine Waves and Phasor
AC Sources
•Often, electrical signals look like sines or cosines V  Vmax sin t 
•AC power, Radio/TV signals, Audio V  Vmax cos t 
•Sine and cosine look nearly identical
•They are related by a phase shift
•Cosine wave is advanced by /2 (90 degrees) compared to sine
•We will always treat source as sine wave
cos t   sin t  12  

Frequency, period, angular frequency related

f 1 T   2 f
•This symbol denotes an arbitrary AC source
 Sine Waves

Sine waves
The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage waveform.

Electrical sine waves are

named from the
mathematical function
with the same shape.
 Summary
A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical
waves cannot be seen directly but they have similar
characteristics. All periodic waves can be constructed from
sine waves, which is why sine waves are fundamental.
 Sine Waves

Sine waves
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and period.
The amplitude is the maximum value of a voltage or current;
the period is the time interval for one complete cycle.
20 V

15 V
The amplitude (A) 10 V
A
of this sine wave
t (s)
is 20 V 0V
0 25 37.5 50.0

The period is 50.0 s -10 V

-15 V

-20 V
 Sine Waves
AC generator (alternator)
Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. A
stationary field alternator with a rotating armature is shown.
The armature has an induced voltage, which is connected
through slip rings and brushes to a load. The armature loops
are wound on a magnetic core (not shown for simplicity).

Small alternators may use a

permanent magnet as shown N S
here; other use field coils to
produce the magnetic flux.
brushes
arm ature

slip rings
There are several ways to specify the voltage of a sinusoidal voltage waveform.
The amplitude of a sine wave is also called the peak value, abbreviated as VP
for a voltage waveform.

20 V

20 V 15 V

15 V 10 V

10 V
VP Vrms
t (s)
0V
0 VPP 25 37.5 50.0
0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
-10 V

-10 V -15 V

-15 V -20 V

-20 V
 RMS Voltage
•There are two ways to describe the amplitude
•Maximum voltage Vmax is an overstatement V  Vmax sin t 
•Average voltage is zero
•Root-mean-square (RMS) voltage is probably the best way
•Plot (V)2, find average value, take square root
•We can do something similar with current
Vrms  V 2  Vmax
2
sin 2 t   1
Vmax
2
2

Vmax
Vrms 
House current (US) 2
is at f = 60 Hz and
Vrms = 120 V I max
Vmax = 170 V I rms 
2
 Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Shift
We will describe any sort of wave in terms of three quantities: A sin t   
•The amplitude A is how big it gets
•To determine it graphically, measure the peak of the wave A  1.60 V
•The frequency is how many times it repeats per second
•To determine it graphically, measure the period T f 1 T   2 f
•Frequency f = 1/T and angular frequency  = 2f
   t0
•The phase shift  is how much it is shifted earlier/later
compared to basic sine wave
•Let t0 be when it crosses the origin while rising
•The phase shift is t0 (radians)
T  0.02 s t0  0.005 s

f  50 Hz   100  0.005 
  100 s 1   12 
 Phase shift Example of a wave that lags the
reference …and the equation
Referenc e has a negative phase
40 shift
30 Peak voltage
20 v = 30 V sin (q  45o)
Voltage (V)

10
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405

-20
-30 Notice that a lagging sine
- 40 wave is below the axis at 0o
Angle ()
 Phase shift Example of a wave that leads the
reference
Notice that a leading sine
Referenc e
40
wave is above the axis at 0o
30 Peak voltage
20
v = 30 V sin (q + 45o)
Voltage (V)

10

-45 0 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

-10
-20 …and the equation
-30 has a positive phase
-40
shift
Angle ()
 Sinusoids Conversion
Conversions for Sinusoids
A sin(wt +f) A cos(wt + f - 90o) EXAMPLE!
Find the phase angle!
- A sin(wt +f) A sin(wt + f + 180o ) v1(t) = 6V sin(20t + 40o)
Or v2(t) = -4V cos(20t + 20o)
A sin(wt + f - 180o ) v1(t) = 6V cos(20t + 40o - 90o) = 6V cos(20t - 50o)
v2(t) = 4V cos(20t + 20o - 180o) = 4V cos(20t - 160o)
- A cos(wt +f) A cos(wt + f + 180o )
Or Phase angle between them is 110o and v1 leads v2

A cos(wt + f - 180o )
A sin(wt +f) A sin (wt + f - 360o)
Or
A sin (wt + f + 360o)
A cos(wt +f) A cos (wt + f - 360o)
Or
A cos (wt + f + 360o)
 Our Goal
•Feed AC source through an arbitrary circuit ?
•Resistors, capacitors, inductors, or combinations of them
•We will always assume the incoming wave has zero phase shift
V  Vmax sin t 
Vmax
•We want to find current as a function of time
I  I max sin t   
•For these components, can show angular frequency  is the same  
•We still need to find amplitude Imax and phase shift  for current
•Also want instantaneous power P and average powerP consumed
P  I V
•Generally, maximum current will be proportional to maximum voltage
•Call the ratio the impedance, Z
I max  Vmax Z
 Degrees vs. Radians

•All my calculations will be done in radians

•Degrees are very commonly used as well
•But the formulas look different
I  I max sin t     I max sin  2 ft       t0

I  I max sin  360 ft      360 ft0

•Probably best to set your calculator on radians and leave it there

 Phasor Diagram
Phasors
The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a
vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is
called a phasor.
90

180 0 0 90 180 360

 Phasor Diagram
Phasors
Phasors allow ac calculations to use basic trigonometry.
The sine function in trigonometry is the ratio of the
opposite side of a right triangle to the adjacent side.

hypotenuse

opposite side
right
q angle
opposite side
sin q =
adjacent side hypotenuse
 Phasor Diagram
Phasors
The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed
as a positive angle, measured counterclockwise from 0
or as a negative angle equal to q  360.

positive angle of q

negative angle of q  360

phasor
 Phasor Diagram
Phasors

• A complex number that represents the amplitude and

phase of a sinusoid V  x2  y2m

Jy
  tan 1  y x   arctan y x 
Vm
x  Vm cos 
imaginary

y  Vm sin  

x real
 Phasor Diagram
Real Number Line

• If there is no imaginary component to the phasor,

then the phasor lies on the real number line (x-axis).
– Positive real numbers are written as:
• Phasor notation Pm 0 o
• Rectangular coordinates Pm

– Negative real numbers are written as:

• Phasor notation Pm   180 o
• Rectangular coordinates  Pm
 Phasor Diagram
Imaginary Number Line

• If there is no real component to the phasor, then the

phasor lies on the imaginary number line (y-axis).
– Positive imaginary numbers are written as:
• Phasor notation Pm 90 o
• Rectangular coordinates jPm

– Negative imaginary numbers are written as:

• Phasor notation Pm   90 o

• Rectangular coordinates  jPm

 Phasor Diagram
Phasor Representation
• Polar coordinates: V  Vm 

• Rectangular coordinates V  Vm cos( )  j sin( )

– Sum of sines and cosines x  Vm cos( ) y  Vm sin( )

• Exponential form: V  Vm e j

Where the sinusoidal function is:

v(t )  Vm cos(t   )
 Phasor Diagram
Tips
• The sinusoid should be written as a cosine.
• Amplitude or magnitude of the cosine should be positive.
– This becomes the magnitude of the phasor
• Angle should be between +180o and -180o.
– This becomes the phase angle of the phasor.
• Note that the frequency of the sinusoid is not included in the
phasor notation. It must be provided elsewhere.
– Phasors are commonly used in power systems, where the frequency is understood
to be 60 Hz in the United States.
 Phasor Diagram
Sinusoid-Phasor Transformations

Time Domain Phasor Domain

Vm cos(t + ) Vm 
Vm sin(t + ) Vm   90o 
Im cos(t + q) I m q
Im sin(t + q) I m q  90o 

Assumes Vm is positive and -180o ≤  ≤ 180o

 Phasor Diagram
Examples
Sinusoidal Function :
3V sin(100t  200 )  3V cos(100t  700 )
Converting to phasor notation : 3V  700

Sinusoidal Function :
7 A sin(350t  1000 )  7 A cos(350t  1900 )
 7 A cos(350t  100 )  7 A cos(350t  1700 )
Converting to phasor notation : 7 A1700
 Phasor Diagram

Examples
Rectangular Phasor Notation
Coordinates
5  3 j V 5.83V 31.0 0
 30  j100 A 104A   73.30
 0.4  0.25 j   0.472 32.0 0
75  j150 A 168A   63.4 0
RLC Circuit
Resistors
 Resistors
V  Vmax sin t  I  I max sin t    R = 1.4 k

•Can find the current from Ohm’s Law Vmax  170 V

f  60 Hz
V Vmax I max  Vmax R
I  sin t  I rms  Vrms R
R R  0

•The current is in phase Voltage

with the voltage Current

Impedance vector:
•A vector showing relationship between voltage and current
•Length, R is the ratio
•Direction is to the right, 1.4 k
representing the phase shift of zero
 Power in Resistors
•We want to know Vmax  170 V R = 1.4 k
•Instantaneous power f  60 Hz
•Average Power

P  I V  Vmax I max sin t   RI max sin t 

2 2 2

P  RI max
2
sin 2 t 

P  12 RI max
2

P  RI rms
2
 Capacitors
V  Vmax sin t  I  I max sin t    C= 2.0 F
•Charge of capacitor is proportional to voltage Q  C V
•Current is derivative of charge Vmax  170 V
d V
 C Vmax cos t 
dQ
I C f  60 Hz
dt dt
 C Vmax sin t  12  
•Current leads voltage by /2
•We say there is a –/2 phase shift:
Impedance vector:
•Define the impedance* for a capacitor as:
1
•Make a vector out of it XC 
C 1.3 k  2 Vmax
•Length XC I max 
XC
•Pointing down for  = –½ *We will ignore the
term “reactance”    12 
 Power in Capacitors
C= 2.0 F
We want to know
•Instantaneous Power
•Average Power

Vmax  170 V
P  I V  Vmax I max sin t  cos t  f  60 Hz

•Power flows into and out of capacitor

•No net power is consumed by capacitor
P 0

Only resistors contribute to the

average power P consumed
 Capacitors and Resistors Combined
•Capacitors and resistors both limit the current – they both have
impedance
I max  Vmax R
•Resistors: same impedance at all frequencies
•Capacitors: more impedance at low frequencies I max  Vmax X C
X C  1 C
 Inductors
•Voltage is proportional to change in current L= 4.0 H
dI
E  L  Vmax sin t 
dt
•Integrate this equation  LI  Vmax cos t 

Vmax Vmax Vmax  170 V
I  cos t   sin t  12  
L L f  60 Hz
•Current lags voltage by /2
•We say there is a +/2 phase shift
Impedance vector:
•Define the impedance for an inductor as:
•Make a vector out of it X L  L
1.5 k
•Length XL
•Pointing up for  = +½ I max  Vmax X L
 
2
  12 
 Impedance Table
Resistor Capacitor Inductor

1
Impedance R XC  X L  L
C

Phase 0  12  1
2 

Vector
right down up
Direction

I max  Vmax R
I max  Vmax X C
I max  Vmax X L
 Adding Impedances Graphically
•Suppose we have 2+ items in series
•Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors 1.4 k 1.4 k
•We can get the total impedance and phase shift by
adding the impedances graphically 60 Hz
The impedance and phase shift of two 170 V
components in series can be found by adding
the vector sum of the two separate impedances Vmax
I max 
•Each impedance is represented by a 1.4 k vector pointing to Z
the right Vrms
•The length of the combination is 2.8 k I rms 
•The total impedance is denoted Z Z
•The total arrow is to the right, so phase shift is 0 Z  2.8 k
1.4 k 1.4 k  0
Z = 2.8 k
 Adding Impedances Graphically (2)
We can add different types of components as well
•The resistor is 1.4 k to the right 1.4 k 2.0 F
1.4 k
•The capacitor is 1.3 k down 

1.3 k
•The total is 1.9 k down-right
1 60 Hz
XC   1330  170 V
C
Z  X C2  R 2  1.42  1.32 k  1.9 k
•The current is then the voltage over the impedance
Vmax 170 V
I max   I max  88.0 mA
Z 1930 

•The phase can be found from the diagram

1330   0.759 rad
tan   
1400 I  I max sin t   
 RLC AC Circuits
L C
•For this rather general circuit, find R
•Impedance •Current
•Phase shift •Average power f
1. Find the angular frequency    2 f
2. Find the impedance of the capacitor and inductor Vmax
3. Find the total impedance Z 1
4. Find the phase shift  XC  X L  L
C

XC
XL
5. Find the current R
6. Find the average power consumed 
 X L  XC 
Z  R   X L  XC 
2 2   tan 1  
 R 

Vmax I  I max sin t   

I max 
Z
 Power in RLC AC Circuits
6. Find the average power consumed
L C
Only resistors R
I  I max sin t   
contribute to the
Vmax average power f
I max  P consumed
Z Vmax
I max
PR  I 2 R  RI max
2
sin 2 t    I rms 
2

P  RI sin t     12 RI max

2 2 2
max P  RI rms
2

R
•Most power is delivered to resistor when Imax is maximized P  V 2
rms
•When Impedance is minimized Z2
•The “resistor” might well represent some useful device
•Like a speaker for a stereo
 Frequency and RLC Circuits
•Impedance tends to be dominated by L C R
whichever component has largest impedance
•At low frequencies, that’s the capacitor
•At high frequencies, that’s the inductor f
•At intermediate, that’s the resistor Vmax
•If the circuit includes a capacitor, it blocks low frequencies
•If the circuit includes an inductor, it blocks high frequencies

High pass filter Low pass filter

 A Sample Circuit
1000 F
X C  1 C 0.1 mH 10 
X L  L   2 f
f
•What frequencies make it through the capacitor?
1 1 Vmax = 5 V
R  XC R   f  16 Hz
C RC
•What frequencies make it through the inductor?
R  XL R  L R f  16 kHz

L
•These inequalities compatible if:
1 R L  R 2C

RC L
 A Sample Circuit (2)
1000 F
X C  1 C 0.1 mH 10 
X L  L
f
  2 f
Vmax = 5 V

•At low frequencies, blocked by capacitor Power

•At high frequencies, blocked by inductor
•At intermediate, power goes to resistor
•Frequencies from about 16 Hz–16 kHz get through
•Close to perfect for an audio system Phase
Shift
What happens if L > R2C ?
 The Narrow Band Filter
X C  1 C
  2 f 1.54 H 2.1 pF 2.0 
X L  L

f
Vmax = 1 mV

•At resonant frequency, capacitor and

inductor cancel
•Perfect for picking up WFDD
Types of RLC Circuits
High Pass Filter
•Lets frequencies through if  > 1/RC

Low Pass Filter

•Lets frequencies through if  < R/L

RLC circuit
•If R2 > L/C, it is a combination of Low and
High pass filter 1
•If R2 < L/C it only lets a narrow 0 
range of frequencies through
CL
•The smaller R2C/L, the narrower it is
 Comments on Phase Shifts
V  Vmax sin t 
 X L  XC 
  tan 
1

I  I max sin t     R 

•The phase shift represents how the timing of the

current compares to the timing of the voltage
•When it is positive, the current lags the voltage    t0
•It rises/falls/peaks later
•When it is negative, the current leads the voltage
•It rises/falls/peaks earlier
 Transformers
B •Let two inductors share the same volume
•You can (should) give them an iron
core too
•The EMF’s can be calculated from the flux
N1 turns

N2 turns
d  B1 d B
E1     N1 E1 E2
dt dt 
N1 N 2
d B2 dB
E2     N2
dt dt

•The magnetic flux must be changing

•Only works for AC
 What Transformers are Good For
•Their main purpose in life is to change the voltage
V1 = 120 V

A 120 V AC source is fed into a transformer,

N2 =5000
N1 =500

V2 = ?
with N1 = 500 turns on the primary coil, and
N2 = 5000 turns on the secondary. What is
the voltage out of the transformer?

E1 E2
 •Voltage can increases, does that mean power increases?
N1 N 2 •When you increase voltage, you decrease current
•In an ideal transformer, the product is conserved
120 V V2
 P  I V I1V1  I 2 V2
500 5000
5000 120 V  Realistic transformers
V2   1200 V are 80-95% efficient
500
Transformers and Power Transmission

Generator Transmission House

500 V Line 100 kV Current 120 V

•Why transmit at 10 kV, instead of 500 V or 120 V?

•Transmission wires are long – they have a lot of resistance
•By using a step up transformer, we increase the voltage I  V1 I
V2
2 1
and decrease the current
•Power lost for a resistor is: 2
 V1 
•You then step it down so you P = I 2rms R  I1rms R 
2 2

don’t kill the customer 
 2V
 Power Supplies
To devices
120 V 21 V 20 V 20 V
AC AC ripply smooth
DC DC

•What if we need a different voltage for a specific device?

•Use a transformer
•What if we want direct current?
•A diode is a device that only lets current through one direction
•What if we don’t like the ripples
•Capacitors store charge from cycle to cycle