SWITCHING

DEVICES

Professor Enrico Ragaini POLITECNICO DI MILANO

Role of Standards

ROLE
OF
STANDARDS

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 Role of Standards

The choice of the device (e.g. CB – Circuit Breaker) is

influenced by multiple standards at different levels:
 INTERNATIONAL standards;
 NATIONAL standards, adaptation of international ones;
 INDUSTRIAL standards, specific for each industry;
 CONTRACT AGREEMENTS, formalized btw producer and
customer only.

National standards provide many definitions, among which

RATINGS and PERFORMANCE LEVELS.
Moreover they describe how devices should be tested for
compliance.

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 Introduction

International standards are specific of each area they apply to.

For instance, in Europe we have:
 IEC – INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMITTEE;
 CENELEC – EUROPEAN COMMISSION FOR
ELECTROTECHNICAL STANDARDIZATION.
Standards are enforced by law in each country.

In the USA: NEC – National Electrical Code, enforced by states.

IEEE is a private association composed of experts coming from the
academic and industrial sectors. IEEE standards are not enforced by law.
ANSI - American National Standards Institute (department of commerce)

Other stardards: JIS (Japan), CCC (China).

In the future we expect a convergence towards the same set of standards

for economical and commercial reasons.

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 Introduction

CENELEC members and affiliates:

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 Introduction

We have to consider two basic classes of standards:

 PRODUCT standards
• Consider type of device;
• Features and ratings of each device;
• Individual tests;
• First concern of device manufacturer;
For instance the IEC 60947-1 to -6, they describe features of
electrical switching devices.
 SYSTEM standards
• Installation design and engineering;
• How products fit together;
• How ratings and features have to match.
For instance the IEC 60364 that describe how to design electrical
installations in buildings including how to select switching
devices.
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 Introduction

For example, here some IEC product standards:

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Conformity & Certification Marking

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Conformity & Certification Marking

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Basic Definitions

BASIC
DEFINITIONS

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 Basic Definitions

SWITCHGEAR
A general term covering switching devices and their combination
with associated control, measuring, protective and regulating
equipment, also assemblies of such devices and equipment with
associated interconnections, accessories, enclosures and
supporting structures, intended in principle for use in connection
with generation, transmission, distribution and conversion of
electric energy.

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 Basic Definitions

A switching device is a device designed to CLOSE or OPEN

one or more electric circuits.
 mechanical switching device:
a switching device designed to close and open one or more
electric circuits by means of separable contacts
Note – Any mechanical switching device may be designated
according to the medium in which its contacts open and
close, e.g. air, SF6, oil.
 semiconductor switching device
a switching device designed to make the current in an
electric circuit by means of the controlled conductivity of a
semiconductor

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 Basic Definitions

Additional requirements of switching devices:

 No inflammable materials, often flame retardant properties;
 No emission of toxic or hot materials during switching;
 Low sound levels;
 Isolation towards live parts;
 Proper degree of protection;
 Easy installation;
 Possibility of connections to cables / bars as required;
 Maintainability;
 Environmental requirements of materials;
 Efficient handling / stock management;
 Compactness;
 Design and aesthetics.

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 Basic Definitions

ASSEMBLY (of switchgear and controlgear)

A combination of switchgear and/ or controlgear completely
assembled with all internal electrical and mechanical
interconnections.

ENCLOSURE (of an assembly)

A part of an assembly providing a specified degree of protection
of equipment against external influences and a specified degree
of protection against approach to or contact with live parts and
against contact with moving parts.

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 Basic Definitions

main circuit (of a switching device)

all the conductive parts of a switching device included in the
circuit which it is designed to close or open

auxiliary circuit (of a switching device)

all the conductive parts of a switching device which are
intended to be included in a circuit other than the main circuit
and the control circuits of the device
Note – Some auxiliary circuits fulfil supplementary functions
such as signalling, interlocking, etc., and, as such, they may be
part of the control circuit of another switching device.

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 Basic Definitions

control circuit (of a switching device)

all the conductive parts (other than the main circuit) of a
switching device which are included in a circuit used for the
closing operation or opening operation, or both, of the device

AUXILIARY CIRCUIT (of an assembly)

All the conductive parts of an assembly of switchgear and
controlgear included in a circuit (other than the main circuit)
intended to control, measure, signal and regulate.

NB. The auxiliary circuits of an assembly include the control and

auxiliary circuits of the switching devices.
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 Basic Definitions

RELIABILITY (performance)
It is the ability of an item to perform a required function under
given conditions for a given time interval.
Such conditions may include installation condition, supply
conditions, environmental conditions, type of duty, maintenance
operations.

NB1. It is generally assumed that the item is in a state to perform

this required function at the beginning of the time interval.
NB2. Generally, reliability performance is quantified using
appropriate measures. In some applications, these measures
include an expression of reliability performance as a probability,
which is also called reliability.

Reliability tests are often destructive sampling tests.

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Types of Devices

TYPES
OF
DEVICES

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 Types of Devices

We are going to define devices in terms of what they can do or

not when dealing with CURRENT.

We use rated current as the basis.

rated value
a quantity value assigned, generally by the manufacturer, for a
specified operating condition of a component, device or
equipment
Note – Examples of rated value usually stated for fuses: voltage,
current, breaking capacity.

Consider rated current (𝑰𝑵 ) as the current flowing in a circuit

during normal operation.

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 Types of Devices

Operations can be performed on different current levels, in

increasing order:

 0 , NO CURRENT.
 𝑰𝑵 , NORMAL CURRENT;
 𝑰𝑶𝑳 , OVERLOAD;
 𝑰𝑺𝑪 , SHORT-CIRCUIT, most critical;

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 Types of Devices

The operations a switching may perform are:

 CLOSE – MAKING, current is established by closing the

circuit;
 OPEN – BREAKING, current is interrupted by opening the
circuit;
 CONDUCTING – CARRYING, there is continuity of
conduction.

NB. If a device is able to perform one action with a certain level

of current, we expect it is able to do so with all the lower levels
of current.

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 Types of Devices

OVER-CURRENT
A current exceeding the rated current.

Overcurrent can be due to Overload or Short circuit

Overload
operating conditions in an electrically undamaged circuit,
which cause an over-current

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 Types of Devices

OVERLOAD

Operating conditions in an electrically undamaged circuit, which

cause an over-current.
Remarks:
 may produce damage if continued for too long time;
 main damage mechanism is heating;
 can be cause of subsequent short circuit;
 generally requires protection;
 "slow" acting protection action may be tolerated or even
needed;
 overloading for a limited time may be part of installation
design;
 e.g., lighting, fans, battery chargers.

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 Types of Devices

SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT
An over-current resulting from a short circuit due to a fault or an
incorrect connection in an electric circuit.
Remarks:
 "short circuit": low impedance path between conductive parts
which by design are at different potential;
 very high current -> very high dissipated power, very strong
electrodynamic forces;
 fault needs to be cleared as soon as possible;
 requires fast protection.

Short-circuit prtoective device (SCPD) [LV]

Device intended to protect a circuit or parts of a circuit against
short-circuit currents by interrupting them.

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 Types of Devices

ISOLATION (isolating function)

Function intended to make dead for reasons of safety all or a
discrete section of the electrical installation by separating the
electrical installation or section from every source of electric
energy.

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 Types of Devices

Some device we will focus on:

 CIRCUIT BREAKER;
 SWITCH ;
 DISCONNECTOR (or isolator) ;
 CONTACTOR (only one position of rest).

We can now cross the operational conditions with the available

devices, defining their applications.

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 Types of Devices – CIRCUIT BREAKER

A mechanical switching device, capable of

making, carrying and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions and also
making, carrying for a specified time and
breaking currents under specified abnormal
circuit conditions such as those of short-
circuit.

NB. A circuit breaker generally has (at least)

two positions of rest. It is generally
employed for protection, but it can also serve
as a disconnector if it fulfils relevant
requirements.

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 Types of Devices – CIRCUIT BREAKER

Being able to "withstand for a specified time" a certain current

means that the CB can withstand the overtemperatures and
electrodynamic forces that such current produces on the
equipment. Such time span is usually about 1 to 3 seconds.

To be underlined the fact that CBs are complementary to

protection devices called relays in medium and high voltage
while in low voltage such protection systems are integrated
inside the CB itself.

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 Types of Devices – MECHANICAL SWITCH

A mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying

and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions which
may include specified operating overload conditions and also
carrying for a specified time currents under specified abnormal
circuit conditions such as those of short circuit.

NB. A switch may be capable of making but not breaking

short-circuit currents.

Earthing Switch
A mechanical switching device for earthing parts of a circuit,
capable of withstanding for a specified time currents under
abnormal conditions such as those of short circuit, but not
required to carry current under normal conditions of the
circuit.
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 Types of Devices – DISCONNECTOR (ISOLATOR)

A mechanical switching device characterized by

a very simple structure which provides, in the
open position, an isolating distance in
accordance with specified requirements.
A disconnector is capable of opening and
closing a circuit when either negligible current
is broken or made, or when no significant
change in the voltage across the terminals of
each of the poles of the disconnector occurs. It
is also capable of carrying currents under
normal circuit conditions and carrying for a
specified time currents under abnormal
conditions such as those of short circuit.

NB. It is usually used as isolate other devices from the main circuit.
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 Types of Devices – MECHANICAL CONTACTOR

Mechanical switching device

having only one position of rest
(unlike all the previous ones),
operated otherwise than by hand,
capable of making, carrying and
breaking currents under
normal circuit conditions
including operating overload
conditions.

NB. Contactors may be designed

according to the method by which
the force for closing the main
contacts is provided.

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 Types of Devices

These were the basic configuration of switching devices, actually a

number of combinations is potentially available.
Moreover, some more specific devices may be introduced.

Switch-Disconnector
A switch which, in the open position, satisfies
the isolating requirements specified for a
disconnector.

switch [disconnector] [switch-

disconnector]- fuse
A switch [disconnector] [switch-
disconnector] in which one or more poles
have a fuse in series in a composite unit.

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 Types of Devices

FUSE COMBINATION UNIT

A combination of a mechanical switching device and one or
more fuses in a composite unit, assembled by the manufacturer.
NB. Some fuse-combination units may be provided with a striker
release such that the operation of any striker causes all poles of
the associated mechanical switching device to open.
Integrally-fused CB
A combination, in a single device, of a circuit-breaker and fuses,
one fuse being placed in series with each pole of the circuit-
breaker intended to be connected to a phase conductor.
CB with lock-out preventing closing
A circuit-breaker in which none of the moving contacts can
make current if the closing command is initiated while the
conditions which should cause the opening operation remain
established.
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 Types of Devices

Moulded-Case CB
A circuit-breaker having a supporting housing of moulded
insulating material forming an integral part of the circuit-breaker.

Air CB
A circuit-breaker in which the contacts open and close in air at
atmospheric pressure.
NB. Definition for low voltage breakers also prescribes a
metallic frame structure
Oil CB
A circuit-breaker in which the contacts open and close in oil.
NB. Typical examples are: live tank minimum oil CBs and dead
tank bulk oil CBs.

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 Types of Devices

Vacuum CB
A circuit-breaker in which the contacts open and close within a
highly evacuated envelope.

Gas-Blast CB
A circuit-breaker in which the arc develops in a blast of gas.
Where the gas is moved by a difference in pressure established
by mechanical means during the opening operation of the CB, it
is termed a single pressure gas-blast circuit-breaker. Where the
gas is moved by a difference in pressure established before the
opening operation of the circuit-breaker, it is termed a double
pressure gas-blast circuit-breaker.

NB. A typical example of such gas is the SF6 – Sulphur

Hexaflouride. Otherwise even air can be used (air-blast CB).

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 Types of Devices

Live Tank CB
A circuit-breaker with interrupters in a tank insulated from earth.

Dead Tank CB
A circuit-breaker with interrupters in an earthed metal tank.

Live Part and Dead (adj.)

Conductor or conductive part intended to be energized in normal
use, including a neutral conductor but, by convention, not a PEN
conductor.
On the opposite, a dead part qualifies a conductive part when it
is not energized.

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 Types of Devices

Conductive Part
A part which is capable of conducting current although it may
not necessarily be used for carrying service current.

Exposed Conductive Part

A conductive part which can readily be touched and which is not
normally alive, but which may become alive under fault
conditions.

NB. Typical exposed conductive parts are walls of enclosures,

operating handles, etc.

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 Types of Devices

STARTER
The combination of all the switching means necessary to start
and stop a motor, in combination with suitable overload
protection.
NB. Starters may be designated according to the method by
which the force for closing the main contacts is provided.

Direct-on-line starter
A starter which connects the line voltage across the motor
terminals in one step.

Star-delta starter
A starter for a three-phase induction motor such that in the
starting position the stator windings are connected in star and in
the final running position they are connected in delta.

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 Types of Devices

One of the most important switching devices related to CBs is

the:
CURRENT-LIMITING CB
A circuit-breaker with a break-time short enough to prevent the
short-circuit current reaching its otherwise expected peak value.

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TESTS

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 Tests

TYPE TEST
Test DESIGN of the device to verify conformance to
requirements.
i.e., purpose is to prove that the device, designed in a certain
way, can actually do what it is expected of it.
In principle, we have to do it only once after design is final.
They may include:
 constructional requirements;
 dielectric properties;
 making and breaking capacities;
 short-circuit making and breaking capacities;
 operating limits;
 operational performance;
 tests for EMC.
 ...

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 Tests

ROUTINE TEST
In this case the ASSEMBLY / PRODUCTION PROCESS is
under analysis.
We are proving that it has been completed according to the
requirements. Main concern is SAFETY.

Routine tests are performed for every device once at the end of
the production line, and may include:
 functional tests;
 dielectric tests.
Details of the routine tests and the conditions under which they
shall be made shall be stated in the relevant product standard.

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 Tests

SAMPLING TEST

a test on a number of devices taken at random from a batch

This test proves that the QUALITY of the device (including

materials and production processes) is kept up to initial
expectations.
Some such tests are destructive.
If engineering and statistical analysis show that routine tests (on
each product) are not required, sampling tests may be made
instead, if so stated in the relevant product standard.

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 Tests

SAMPLING TEST

The tests may include:

 functional tests;
 dielectric tests.

Sampling tests may also be made to verify specific properties or

characteristics of an equipment, either on the manufacturer's own
initiative, or by agreement between manufacturer and user.

If allowed by relevant product standard, sampling tests may be

made instead of routine tests (for non safety-critical properties).

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 Tests

Low Voltage Circuit Breakers - Routine tests

The following tests apply:

 mechanical operation;
 verification of the calibration of overcurrent releases;
 verification of the operation of undervoltage and shunt
releases;
 dielectric tests;
 verification of clearances.

NB. If by the control of materials and manufacturing processes,

the integrity of the dielectric properties has been proven, these
tests may be replaced by sampling tests according to a
recognized sampling plan (see IEC 60410).

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 Tests

SPECIAL TESTS,

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS are tested.

e.g.:
• in case the customer requires a device working in harsh
environmental conditions not prescribed by the standards.
These tests are included in Contract Agreements.
• in case of industry- or application-specific requirement

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CHARACTERISTIC
QUANTITIES

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 Basic Definitions

NOMINAL VALUE is the quantity that identifies a component,

device or equipment (generally rounded).

RATED VALUE is the quantity that specifies the operating

conditions of a component, device or equipment.
It is assigned by manufacturers based on specific tests based on
standard requirements.
Especially because the same device may have different rated
values according to the kind of test undertaken, which depends
on the standard

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 Characteristic Quantities

Currents:

 Rated current;
 Rated voltage;
 Breaking capacity;
 Making capacity;
 Short-time withstand current.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Rated uninterrupted curent

The rated normal current of switchgear and controlgear is the
R.M.S. value of the current which switchgear and controlgear
shall be able to carry continuously under specified conditions of
use and behaviour.
The values of rated normal currents should by preference be
selected from the R 10 series, specified in IEC 60059.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Utilization category [LV]

The utilization category of an equipment defines the intended
application and shall be specified in the relevant product
standard; it is characterized by one or more of the following
service conditions:
 current(s), expressed as multiple(s) of the rated operational
current;
 voltage(s), expressed as multiple(s) of the rated operational
voltage;
 power-factor or time-constant;
 short-circuit performance;
 selectivity;
 other service conditions, as applicable.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Iu – Rated uninterrupted current

The rated uninterrupted current of an equipment is a value of
current, stated by the manufacturer, which the equipment can
carry in uninterrupted duty.
The duty cycles considered by standards are:
 Intermittent/periodic (several classes defined);
 8-hours duty;
 Uninterrupted duty.

Uninterrupted duty (for a switching device)

Duty in which the main contacts of a switching device remain
closed whilst carrying a steady current without interruption for
long periods (which could be weeks, months, or even years).

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 Characteristic Quantities

Thermal definition of Iu [LV] – Overtemperatures

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 Characteristic Quantities

PROSPECTIVE CURRENT
(of a circuit and with respect to a switching device or a fuse)

R.M.S. current that would flow in the circuit if each pole of the
switching device or the fuse were replaced by a conductor of
negligible impedance.

NB. The method to be used to evaluate and to express the

prospective current is to be specified in the relevant product
standard.

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Characteristic Quantities

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 Characteristic Quantities

Prospective Peak Current

Peak value of a prospective current during the transient period
following initiation.

NB. The definition assumes that the current is made by an ideal

switching device, i.e. with instantaneous transition from infinite
to zero impedance. For circuits where the current can follow
several different paths, e.g. polyphase circuits, it further assumes
that the current is made simultaneously in all poles, even if only
the current in one pole is considered.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Prospective Symmetrical Current (of an a.c. circuit)

Prospective current when it is initiated at such an instant that no
transient phenomenon follows the initiation.

NB 1. For polyphase circuits the condition of non-transient

period can only be satisfied for the current in one pole at a time.
NB 2. The prospective symmetrical current is expressed by its
R.M.S. value.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Maximum Prospective Peak Current (of an a.c. circuit)

Prospective peak current when initiation of the current takes
place at the instant which leads to the highest possible value.

NB. For a multipole device in a polyphase circuit, the maximum

prospective peak current refers to one pole only.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Prospective Making Current (for a pole of a switching device)

Prospective current when initiated under specified conditions

NB. The specified conditions may relate to the method of

initiation, e.g. by an ideal switching device, or to the instant of
initiation, e.g., leading to the maximum prospective peak current
in an a.c. circuit, or to the highest rate of rise. The specification
of these conditions is given in the relevant product standard.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Prospective Breaking Current

(for a pole of a switching device or a fuse)
Prospective current evaluated at a time corresponding to the
instant of the initiation of the breaking process.

NB. Specifications concerning the instant of the initiation of the

breaking process are given in the relevant product standard. For
mechanical switching devices or fuses, it is usually defined as
the moment of initiation of the arc during the breaking process.

Breaking Current (of a switching device or a fuse)

Current in a pole of a switching device or in a fuse at the instant
of initiation of the arc during a breaking process.

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Characteristic Quantities

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Characteristic Quantities

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Characteristic Quantities

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 Characteristic Quantities

Low Voltage CBs - DC

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 Characteristic Quantities – BREAKING CAPACITY

BREAKING CAPACITY (of a switching device)

A value of prospective current that a switching device or a fuse
is capable of breaking at a under prescribed conditions of use
and behavior. stated voltage
NB 1. The voltage to be stated and the conditions to be
prescribed are dealt with in the relevant publications.
NB 2. For switching devices, the breaking capacity may be
termed according to the kind of current included in the
prescribed conditions, e.g. line-charging breaking capacity, cable
charging breaking capacity, single capacitor bank breaking
capacity, etc.

Short-circuit Breaking Capacity

Breaking capacity for which prescribed conditions include a
short circuit at the terminals of the switching device.
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 Characteristic Quantities – BREAKING CAPACITY

The definition of the breaking capacity must take into account

specific parameters:

 VOLTAGE SUPPLY;
 VOLTAGE RECOVERY;
 CONDITIONS OF THE CIRCUIT;
 TYPE OF CONNECTION;
 CONDITIONS OF THE DEVICE;
 CONDITIONS OF INSTALLATION.

All of these conditions are well defined by standards and if one

of them is not fulfilled, then the breaking capacity is not verified
anymore.

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 Characteristic Quantities – BREAKING CAPACITY

Supply Voltage & Recovery Voltage

Remembering that breaking concerns the ENERGY flowing
through the breaker and the current decreases when the supply
voltage increases.
We know that the energy depends strongly on the type of supply
(a.c or d.c.).
Standards provide also the maximum value of TRV. Moreover it
must be considered the first pole interruption issue (TRV is up to
50% greater on that pole).

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 Characteristic Quantities – BREAKING CAPACITY

Conditions of the Circuit

A breaker can interrupt a short-circuit current if the amount of
inductive current is rather low. In fact, the inductive current is
strictly related to the energy stored in the circuit that will have to
be discharged somewhere.
Moreover, the number of phases strongly influences that
breaking capacity, we know that the worst condition is a 3-phase
fault, therefore in that case the breaking capacity will be lower.

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 Characteristic Quantities – BREAKING CAPACITY

Type of Connection
We are talking about the the substation connection of the neutral
point: TT, TN and IT.

The choice here is more on a legal plane than a technical one.

Industries prefere to adopt TN connections since it is easier to
distribute the grounding wire. Otherwise, thay may go for IT in
order to have maximum continuity of service.

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 Characteristic Quantities – BREAKING CAPACITY

Condition of the Device

It must be remembered that devices worsen their performances
in the aging process.
Also the number of operations strongly affect a good operation
of these devices. To be considered carefully the values of «Icu»
and «Ics» that will be discussed soon in this theater.

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 Characteristic Quantities – BREAKING CAPACITY

Condition of Installation
It relates to «where» and «how» the device is installed.
The air density can influence the breaking capacity since heat
transfer efficiency changes with the height (the higher, the
worse).
Even position, vertical and horizontal, can influence the breaking
capacity, depending on the kind of operation it performs.
Moreover, air pollution is a factor that could worsen conditions
of interruption.
Pollution increases conductivity of air, which is a bad
consequence.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Let us now list some specification of breaking capacity.

It is assumed that if a device is tested for a given breaking
capacity, it has the capacity to successfully break all currents
corresponding to less;
For time invariant circuits, the rated short circuit breaking
capacity is valid:
 In AC, for all circuits with power factor not less than that used
in type tests;
 In DC, for all circuits with time constant not less than that
used in type tests;
It is assumed that, with the above specification, the circuit
breaker can interrupt all currents less than its rated short circuit
breaking capacity. It is also assumed that the circuit breaker can
interrupt a short circuit current equal to its rated short circuit
breaking capacity, for any voltage value less
than that for which such breaking capacity is specified.
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 Characteristic Quantities

Icn – Rated Short-circuit Breaking Capacity [LV]

The rated short-circuit breaking capacity of an equipment is the
value of short-circuit breaking capacity assigned to that
equipment by the manufacturer for the rated operational voltage,
at rated frequency, and at a specified power-factor for a.c. or
time constant for d.c. It is expressed as the value of the
prospective breaking current (r.m.s. value of the a.c. component
in the case of a.c.), under prescribed conditions.

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Characteristic Quantities

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Characteristic Quantities

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 Characteristic Quantities

Icw – Rated Short-time Withstand Current

The rated short-time withstand current of an equipment is the
value of short-time withstand current, assigned to the equipment
by the manufacturer, that the equipment can carry without
damage, under the test conditions specified in the relevant
product standard.

Icm – Rated Short-circuit Making Capacity

The rated short-circuit making capacity of an equipment is the
value of short-circuit making capacity assigned to that
equipment by the manufacturer for the rated operational voltage,
at rated frequency, and at a specified power-factor for a.c. or
time constant for d.c. lt is expressed as the maximum prospective
peak current, under prescribed conditions.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Icu – Rated Ultimate Short-circuit Current

R.M.S. prospective current that the CB is capable of breaking at
a specified voltage, under defined test conditions which include
one break operation and one make/break operation. This value
should be equal or exceed the prospective short-circuit current at
the point of installation.

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Characteristic Quantities

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Characteristic Quantities

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 Characteristic Quantities – MAKING CAPACITY

Value of prospective making current that a switching device is

capable of making at a stated voltage under prescribed
conditions of use and behavior.

NB. The voltage to be stated and the conditions to be prescribed

are dealt with in the relevant product standard.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Short-circuit Making Capacity

Making capacity for which prescribed conditions include a short
circuit at the terminals of the switching device.

Short-time Withstand Current

Current that a circuit or a switching device in the closed position
can carry during a specified short time under prescribed
conditions of use and behavior.

Peak Withstand Current

Value of peak current that a circuit or a switching device in the
closed position can withstand under prescribed conditions of use
and behavior.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Low Voltage Circuit Breakers

The rated short-circuit making capacity of a circuit-breaker is the
value of short-circuit making capacity assigned to that circuit-
breaker by the manufacturer at a specified power factor for a.c.,
or time constant for d.c. It is expressed as the maximum
prospective peak current.
For a.c. the rated short-circuit making capacity of a circuit-
breaker shall be not less than its rated ultimate short-circuit
breaking capacity, multiplied by the factor “n”.
For d.c., the rated short-circuit making capacity of a circuit-
breaker shall be not less than its rated ultimate short-circuit
breaking capacity.
A rated short-circuit making capacity implies that the circuit-
breaker shall be able to make the current corresponding to that
rated capacity at the appropriate applied voltage related to the
rated operational voltage.
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 Characteristic Quantities

Breaking capacity - High Voltage Circuit Breakers

The rated short-circuit breaking current is found in a circuit
having a power-frequency recovery voltage corresponding to the
rated voltage of the circuit-breaker and having a transient
recovery voltage equal to the value specified. The rated short-
circuit breaking current is characterized by two values:
 the r.m.s. value of its a.c. component;
 the d.c. time constant of the rated short-circuit breaking
current which results in a percentage of d.c. component at
contact separation.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Breaking capacity - High Voltage Circuit Breakers

NB1. If the percentage of d.c. component at contact separation
does not exceed 20 %, the rated short-circuit breaking current is
characterized only by the r.m.s. value of its a.c. component.
NB 2. The percentage of d.c. component is a function of the d.c.
time constant of the rated shortcircuit breaking current and of the
instant of initiation of the short-circuit current. For determination
of the a.c. and the percentage of d.c. component at any time
following current initiation.
The circuit-breaker shall be capable of breaking any short-circuit
current up to its rated short circuit breaking current containing
any a.c. component up to the rated value and, associated with it,
any percentage of d.c. component corresponding to the d.c. time
constant up to that specified, under the conditions mentioned
above.

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Characteristic Quantities

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 Characteristic Quantities

Recovery Voltage
Voltage which appears across the terminals of a pole of a
switching device or a fuse after the breaking of the current.

NB. This voltage may be considered in two successive intervals

of time, one during which a transient voltage exists, followed by
a second one during which the power-frequency voltage or the
steady-state recovery voltage alone exists.

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 Characteristic Quantities

TRV – Transient Recovery Voltage

Recovery voltage during the time in which it has a significant
transient character.

NB. The transient voltage may be oscillatory or nonoscillatory or

a combination of these depending on the characteristics of the
circuit, the switching device or the fuse. lt includes the voltage
shift of the neutral of a polyphase circuit.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Prospective Transient Recovery Voltage

Transient recovery voltage following the breaking of the
prospective symmetrical current by an ideal switching device.

NB. The definition assumes that the switching device or the fuse,
for which the prospective transient recovery voltage is sought, is
replaced by an ideal switching device, i.e. having instantaneous
transition from zero to infinite impedance at the very instant of
zero current, i.e. at the "natural" zero. For circuits where the
current can follow several different paths, e.g. a polyphase
circuit, the definition further assumes that the breaking of the
current by the ideal switching device takes place only in the pole
considered.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Transient recovery voltage related to the rated short-circuit

breaking current.
The transient recovery voltage (TRV) related to the rated short-
circuit breaking current is the reference voltage which
constitutes the limit of the prospective transient recovery voltage
of circuits which the circuit-breaker shall be capable of
withstanding under fault conditions.

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 Characteristic Quantities

Representation of TRV waves

The waveform of transient recovery voltages varies according to
the arrangement of actual circuits. In some cases, particularly in
systems with a voltage 100 kV and above, and where the short
circuit currents are relatively large in relation to the maximum
short-circuit current at the point under consideration, the
transient recovery voltage contains first a period of high rate of
rise, followed by a later period of lower rate of rise. This
waveform is generally adequately represented by an envelope
consisting of three line segments defined by means of four
parameters.

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 Characteristic Quantities

In other cases, particularly in systems with a voltage less than

100 kV, or in systems with a voltage greater than 100 kV in
conditions where the short-circuit currents are relatively small in
relation to the maximum short-circuit currents and fed through
transformers, the transient recovery voltage approximates to a
damped single frequency oscillation. This waveform is
adequately represented by an envelope consisting of two line
segments defined by means of two parameters.
Such a representation in terms of two parameters is a special
case of representation in terms of four parameters.

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Characteristic Quantities

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 Characteristic Quantities

Transient Recovery Voltage [LV]

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 PARTS
OF
SWITCHING
DEVICES
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Parts of Switching Devices

Structure of a CB

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Main Circuit
All the conductive parts of a switching device included in the
circuit which it is designed to close or open.

Auxiliary Circuit
All the conductive parts of a switching device which are
intended to be included in a circuit other than the main circuit
and the control circuits of the device.

NB. Some auxiliary circuits fulfill supplementary functions such

as signalling, interlocking, etc., and, as such, they may be part of
the control circuit of another switching device.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Control Circuit
All the conductive parts (other than the main circuit) of a
switching device which are included in a circuit used for the
closing operation or opening operation, or both, of the device.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Pole of a Switching Device

Portion of a switching device associated exclusively with one
electrically separated conducting path of its main circuit and
excluding those portions which provide a means for mounting
and operating all poles together.

NB. A switching device is called single-pole if it has only one

pole. If it has more than one pole, it may be called multipole
(two-pole, three-pole, etc.) provided the poles are or can be
coupled in such a manner as to operate together.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Contact (of a mechanical switching device)

Conductive parts designed to establish circuit continuity when
they touch and which, due to their relative motion during an
operation, open or close a circuit or, in the case of hinged or
sliding contacts, maintain circuit continuity.

Arcing Contact
Arc contact on which the arc is intended to be established.

NB. An arcing contact may serve as a main contact; it may be a

separate contact so designed that it opens after and closes before
another contact which it is intended to protect from deterioration.

Auxiliary Contact
Contact included in an auxiliary circuit and mechanically
operated by the switching device.
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 Parts of Switching Devices

«a» Contact – Make Contact

Control or auxiliary contact which is closed when the main
contacts of the mechanical switching device are closed and open
when they are open. It is sometimes indicated as "normally
open".

«b» Contact – Break Contact

Control or auxiliary contact which is open when the main
contacts of the mechanical switching device are closed and
closed when they are open. It is sometimes indicated as
"normally open".

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 Parts of Switching Devices

RELAY (electrical)
Device designed to produce sudden, predetermined changes in
one or more electrical output circuits when certain conditions are
fulfilled in the electrical input circuits controlling the device.

RELEASE (of a mechanical switching device)

Device, mechanically connected to a mechanical switching
device, which releases the holding means and permits the
opening or the closing of the switching device.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Actuating System (of a mechanical switching device)

Whole of the operating means of a mechanical switching device
which transmit the actuating force to the contact pieces.

NB. The operating means of an actuating system may be

mechanical, electromagnetic, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, etc.

Interlocking Device
Device which makes the operation of a switching device
dependent upon the position of operation of one or more other
pieces of equipment.

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OPERATION
OF
SWITCHING
DEVICES
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 Operation of Switching Devices

Operation (of a mechanical switching device)

Transfer of the moving contact(s) from one position to an
adjacent position.
NB 1. For example, for a circuit-breaker, this may be a closing
operation or an opening operation.
NB 2. If distinction is necessary, an operation in the electrical
sense, e.g., make or break, is referred to as a switching operation,
and an operation in the mechanical sense, e.g., close or open, is
referred to as a mechanical
operation.

Opening and Closing Operations (of switching device)

Operation by which the device is brought from the closed
position to the open position (opening), or the opposite in case of
closing.
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 Operation of Switching Devices

Operating Sequence (of a mechanical switching device)

Succession of specified operations with specified time intervals.

Operating Cycle (of a mechanical switching device)

Succession of operations from one position to another and back
to the first position through all other positions, if any.

Positive Opening Operation (of a mechanical switching device)

Opening operation which, in accordance with specified
requirements, ensures that all the main contacts are in the open
position when the actuator is in the position corresponding to the
open position of the device.

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 Operation of Switching Devices

positive opening operation (of a mechanical switching device)

an opening operation which, in accordance with specified
requirements, ensures that all the main contacts are in the open
position when the actuator is in the position corresponding to the
open position of the device

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Operation of Switching Devices

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 Operation of Switching Devices

Dependent Manual Operation

Dependent manual operation (of a mechanical switching device)
operation solely by means of directly applied manual energy such
that the speed and force of the operation are dependent upon the
action of the operator.

Dependent Power Operation

Operation by means of energy other than manual, where the
completion of the operation is dependent upon the continuity of the
power supply (to solenoids, electric or pneumatic motors, etc.).

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 Operation of Switching Devices

Stored Energy Operation (of a mechanical switching device)

Operation by means of energy stored in the mechanism itself
prior to the completion of the operation and sufficient to
complete it under predetermined conditions.

NB. This kind of operation may be subdivided according to:

 The manner of storing the energy (spring, weight, etc.);
 The origin of the energy (manual, electric, etc.);
 The manner of releasing the energy (manual, electric, etc.).

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 Operation of Switching Devices

Independent Manual Operation

Stored energy operation where the energy originates from
manual power, stored and released in one continuous operation,
such that the speed and force of the operation are independent of
the action of the operator.

Independent Power Operation

Stored energy operation where the stored energy originates from
an external power source and is released in one continuous
operation, such that the speed and force of the operation are
independent of the action of the operator.

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 Operation of Switching Devices

Closed Position (of a mechanical switching device)

Position in which the predetermined continuity of the main
circuit of the device is secured.

Open Position (of a mechanical switching device)

The position in which the predetermined clearance between open
contacts in the main circuit of the device is secured.

NB. In low voltage, the definition becomes: “Position in which

the predetermined dielectric withstand voltage requirements are
satisfied between open contacts in the main circuit of the
device”.

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 RELEASE
AND
PROTECTION

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 Release and Protection

Tripping (operation)
Opening operation of a mechanical switching device initiated by
a relay or release.

Trip-free Mechanical Switching Device [LV]

Mechanical switching device, the moving contacts of which
return to and remain in the open position when the opening (i.e.
tripping) operation is initiated after the initiation of the closing
operation, even if the closing command is maintained.

NB 1. To ensure proper breaking of the current which may have

been established, it may be necessary that the contacts
momentarily reach the closed position.
NB 2. The opening operation of a trip-free mechanical switching
device is automatically controlled.

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 Release and Protection

Fixed Trip Mechanical Switching Device

A mechanical switching device which cannot be released except
when it is in the closed position.

Conventional Non-Tripping Current

(of an over-current relay or release)
Specified value of current which the relay or release can carry
for a specified time (conventional time) without operating.

Conventional Tripping Current

(of an over-current relay or release)
Specified value of current which causes the relay or release to
operate within a specified time (conventional time).

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 ARC ENERGY
AND
JOULE INTEGRAL

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Cut-off Current and Let-through Current

Maximum instantaneous value of current attained during the
breaking operation of a switching device or a fuse.
NB. This concept is of particular importance when the switching
device or the fuse operates in such a manner that the prospective
peak current of the circuit is not reached.

Cut-off (current) and Let-through (current) Characteristic

Curve giving the cut-off current as a function of the prospective
current, under stated conditions of operation.
NB. In the case of a.c., the values of the cut-off currents are the
maximum values which can be reached whatever the degree of
asymmetry. In the case of d.c., the values of the cut-off currents
are the maximum values reached related to the time constant as
specified.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Current-limiting CB
A circuit-breaker with a break-time short enough to prevent the
short circuit current reaching its otherwise attainable peak value.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

JOULE INTEGRAL – I2t

Integral of the square of the current over a given time interval:

NB. It is equivalent to the specific let-through energy. In

particular, in case of a fault: “t0” is the instant when fault current
starts to flow, “t1” is the instant of final extinction of current in
all poles.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Arc Energy
Energy dissipated by the electric arc:

Where “0” is the instant of arc inception, “ts” is the instant of

final arc extinction.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Critical Load Current

Value of breaking current, within the range of service conditions,
at which the arcing time is significantly extended.

Critical Short-circuit Current

Value of breaking current, less than the rated short-circuit
breaking capacity, at which the arc energy is significantly higher
than at the rated short-circuit breaking capacity.

Critical Breaking Current

Value of breacking current, less than the short-circuit breaking
current, at which the arching time is a maximum and is
significantly longer than the rated short-circuit breaking current.

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 Parts of Switching Devices

Peak Arc Voltage (of a mechanical switching device)

Maximum instantaneous value of voltage which, under
prescribed conditions, appears across the terminals of a pole of a
switching device during the arcing time.

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OPERATING
TIMES

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Operating Times

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Operating Times

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 Operating Times

Opening Time (of a mechanical switching device)

Interval of time between the specified instant of initiation of the
opening operation and the instant when the arcing contacts have
separated in all poles.
NB. The instant of initiation of the opening operation, i.e. the
application of the opening command (e.g. energizing the
release), is given in the relevant product standard.

Arcing Time (of a multipole switching device)

Interval of time between the instant of the first initiation of an
arc and the instant of final arc extinction in all poles.

Break Time
Interval of time between the beginning of the opening time of a
mechanical switching device (or the pre-arcing time of a fuse)
and the end of the arcing time.
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Operating Times

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Operating Times

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Operating Times

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 Operating Times

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 Short-circuit Tests

Tests can be divided into two main groups concerning the way
power is provided to the device under test:

DIRECT TESTING
Power is provided strictly from machines. We may have three
flavours: network powered, generator-supplied laboratory
and capacitor-supplied. The first may be problematic because
we would be affecting the entire power network. The second
consists of a dedicated set of machinery specifically designed for
short-circuit testing, isolated from the main network. They can
withstand overheating and overloading because they are going to
work for only few minutes. The last is quite similar to the second
case but with capacitors instead of rotating machines, used for
DC systems.

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 Short-circuit Tests

SYNTHETIC TESTING
We use more than 1 generator and we synchronize them in order
to obtain conditions that singularly are not able to provide.
In this way we obtain an equivalent single generator.
This is the most widespread approach in case of HV or UHV
testing.
Actually, we are not obliged to use generators only, we can use
both generators to provide short-circuit current and capacitors to
provide the peak voltage.
This trick is possible only because the test is run for few
secondss, otherwise we wouldn’t be able to perform it.
As last solution for UHV we can also performe half-pole testing
or even quarter-pole testing.

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 Tests

Single-pole circuit for circuit breaker direct (power) testing:

1. Protection circuit breaker;

2. Load, adjusted to obtain the required current;
3. Circuit breaker under test;
4. Optional additional load, same purpose as 2;
5. Making switch, negligible impedance and fast, synch closing;
6. Temporary connection, with negligible impedance, for circuit
calibration (setting of prospective current);
7. Resistive and Capacitive circuit for calibration of prospective
recovery voltage;
8. Circuit similar to 7, when needed.
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Tests

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Tests

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Tests

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Tests: Partial poles testing

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Tests

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Tests

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EXAMPLES

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Examples: Structure of a Substation

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Examples: Structure of a Substation

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Examples: Structure of a Substation

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Examples: Structure of a Substation

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Examples: Structure of a Substation

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Examples: Power Distribution Loop

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Examples: Power Distribution Loop

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Examples: Power Distribution Loop

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Examples: Power Distribution Loop

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Examples: Power Distribution Loop

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Examples: Application of Contactors

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