UNIT-I

DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
1.1 Sources-Transformation and manipulation,
1.2 Network theorems
1.2.1 Superposition theorem
1.2.2 Thevenin’s theorem
1.2.3 Norton’s theorem
1.2.4 Reciprocity theorem,
1.2.5 Millman’s theorem,
1.2.6 Compensation theorem,
1.2.7 Maximum power transfer theorem and
1.2.8 Tellegen’s theorem
1.3 Application to DC circuit analysis.
Already covered in CME (Revision)
 Introduction

Electric Circuit Electromagnetic

Theory Theory

Fundamental theories upon

which all branches of Electrical
Engg are built.

 In Electrical Engg we are interested in communicating or

transferring energy from one point to another.
 To this requires an interconnection of electrical devices.
 Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit and
each component of the circuit is known as an element.
Circuit Elements: Classification
• Linear & Non-linear element
• Active & Passive element
• Unilateral & Bilateral element
• Time variant & Time invariant
• Lumped and Distributed elements
Circuit Elements: Classification
Linear & Non-linear element
• The elements which obey the super position
principle i.e. homogeneity (i.e. o/p  i/p) and
additive, whose characteristics pass through
origin all time are called Linear elements.
• All the elements which don’t satisfy the above
principle are called as Non-linear elements.
 Linear Circuit

The homogeneity property:

The additivity property:

 Linear Circuit
• We consider only linear circuits.
• Note that since P=i2R=v2/R (Making it a
quadratic function rather than a linear one),
the relation ship between power and voltage
(or current) is non linear.
• Therefore the theorems covered in DC Circuit
analysis are not applicable to power
P1 = i12R
P2 = i22R

P3 = (i1+i2)2R = Ri12+Ri22 + 2Ri1i2≠P1+P2

Identify Linear & Non Linear
Characteristics
Identify Linear & Non Linear
Characteristics
Circuit Elements: Classification
Active element & Passive element:
• Active element : The circuit elements which
supply energy to the circuit are called active
circuit element. Ex. Generators, batteries &
operational amplifiers.
• Passive element: The circuit elements that
receive energy (or absorb energy) and either
convert it into heat or store it in an electric field
or a magnetic field are called passive circuit
elements.
Ex. Resistors, Capacitors & Inductors
Circuit Elements: Classification
Unilateral Circuit Element
• The unilateral circuit element does not offer same
resistance to the current of either direction.
• The resistance of the unilateral circuit element is
different for forward current than that of reverse
current.
Examples: Diode, Transistor etc.
Circuit Elements: Classification
Bilateral Circuit Element
• Conduction of current in both directions in a
circuit element with same magnitude is
termed as bilateral circuit element.
• It offers same resistance to the current of
either directions.
Examples: Resistors, inductors, capacitors etc.
Circuit Elements: Classification
Time variant & Time invariant
• An element is said to Time Variant when V-I characteristics
changes with time otherwise time invariant

• An element or a system is said to be time invariant if

parameters of the element do not vary with time.
Circuit Elements: Classification
Lumped and Distributed elements
• In electrical circuits if the physical size of the
element is negligibly small when compared with
wave length of electromagnetic wave
propagation then the element is modelled as
lumped elements.
• The lumped element can be represented with its
parameters like resistance or inductance with its
total value at a place.
• Examples: Resistors, inductors, capacitors.
Circuit Elements: Classification
Lumped and Distributed elements
• If the physical size of the element is comparable with
wavelength of electromagnetic wave propagation then
such an element is modelled as distributed element. In
these elements resistance, inductance or capacitances
are distributed and cannot be separated and modelled
at a single point. These are distributed throughout the
circuit.
• Example: Long transmission lines-in which the
resistance, capacitance and inductances are distributed
throughout the line. Elements in high frequency
electronic circuits.
λ=ν/f
 Classification of Sources
(1) Independent Sources
(2) Dependent Sources
1. Independent Sources:
 Voltage Source
o Ideal
o Practical
 Current Source
o Ideal
o Practical
 Classification of Sources
(2) Dependent Sources
• A Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
• A Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)
• A Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
• A Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
 Classification of Sources
Ideal Voltage & Current Sources
Definition: An ideal voltage source maintains a
specified voltage across its terminals irrespective of the
current through the source.
Definition: An ideal current source maintains a
specified current through it irrespective of the voltage
across its terminals.

*Practically non existing

 Practical Voltage Sources

Fig:
(a)An Ideal 12V dc voltage source
(b)Practical Model of 12V dc voltage source
Ref: Engg Circuit Analysis W.Hayt P.No.133
 Practical Voltage Sources

Practical Voltage source

Connected to load Relation ship between VL and
IL is lenear
Applying KVL :
 Practical Voltage Sources
General Case:

Vs  The voltage of Ideal voltage source

Rs  Internal resistance of voltage source O.C. Voltage VLoc (Rs= so IL=0)
VLoc=Vs
The linear relation ship between VL & IL is: The SC current (RL=0, VL=0)
Isc = Vs/Rs
 Practical Current Sources
• A practical current source is defined as an ideal current source
in parallel with an internal resistance Rp

Applying KCL
The OC voltage & SC current are:
 INDEPENDENT SOURCES
An independent (ideal) voltage source is a two-terminal
element that maintains a specified voltage between its
terminals regardless of the Current through it as shown
by the v-i plot in Fig.

Symbols for (a) Independent voltage sou rce, (b) Independent current source.
 DEPENDENT SOURCES
• Dependent sources generate a voltage or current
that is determined by a voltage or current at a
specified location in the circuit.
• These sources are very important because they are
an integral part of the mathematical models used to
describe the behaviour of many electronic circuit
elements.
 DEPENDENT SOURCES
• Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source: The source
delivers the voltage as per the voltage of the
dependent element. V = K Vx

K  Dimension less
scaling constant
Voltage-controlled voltage source
 DEPENDENT SOURCES
• Voltage-controlled current source: The source
delivers the current as per the voltage of the
dependent element. I = gVx

g Scaling factor
with Unit – A/ V

Voltage-controlled current source

 DEPENDENT SOURCES
• Current-controlled current source: The source
delivers the current as per the current of the
dependent element. I = k ix

k  Dimension less
scaling constant
Current-controlled current source
 DEPENDENT SOURCES
• Current-controlled voltage source: The source
delivers the voltage as per the current of the
dependent element. V = r ix

r  scaling factor
with unit V/A

Current-controlled voltage source

Voltage Divider
Current Divider
1.1 Source Transformation
 1.1 Source Transformation
Source transformation is another tool for
simplifying circuits, basic to these tools is the
concept of equivalence.
An equivalent circuit is one whose v-i
characteristics are identical with the original
circuit.
Substitute a voltage source in series with a
resistor for a current source in parallel with a
resistor, or vice versa, as shown in Fig. 4.15.
Either substitution is known as a source
transformation.
1.1
1.1 Source Transformation

1.1
 Proof
• If the same value of load resistance RL is connected to the
circuits of the following figure, the load current flowing in
circuit (a) is;
……………….(1)
 Proof
• And the load current flowing in circuit (b) is
…………. (2)

• To produce the same effect at the load, equations (1)

and (2) must be equal.

i.e. Or
Impossible Source Transformation
 1.1 Source Transformation
Source transformation also applies to dependent sources
1.1
Soln:

Using Current
Division Rule

1.1
1.1
1.1
 VCCS


• Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 4.21(b) gives

1.1
1.1
1.1
Practice Problem

Ans: i R4 = 0.267A

Ans: i R2 = 2.4 mA

Ans: i R1 =1 2.5 mA
Practice Problem

Ans: VR5 = 48V

 Practice Problem
5. Find Vo using source Transformation
Ans: Vo= 20V

6. Let’s find v2 in the following circuit using source transformation.

Ans: V2 = 24V
1.2.1 Superposition Theorem
1.2.1 Superposition Theorem
Superposition Theorem

Mesh or Nodal
Analysis
 Removing a voltage source and a current source to
permit the application of the superposition theorem.

• When removing a voltage source from a network schematic, replace it

with a direct connection (short circuit) of zero ohms. Any internal
resistance associated with the source must remain in the network.

• When removing a current source from a network schematic, replace it

by an open circuit of infinite ohms. Any internal resistance associated
with the source must remain in the network.
(Book: Introductory Circuit Analysis by Boylestad)
Solution: 1. Applying 30V source to the circuit:
2. Applying 3A Current source to the circuit:
(Book: Introductory Circuit Analysis by Boylestad)
Practice Problem:

Ans:

(Book: Introductory Circuit Analysis by Boylestad)

 Ans:

(Book: Introductory Circuit Analysis by Boylestad)

V1 Acting in the circuit:
3A Current Acting in the circuit:
 30  10  20 

10 
90V 60  30 

3A 12 
20 
 10  10 

30  60 
6A 30  20  20  12 

10  20  10 

30  60  40 V
30  2A
20  12 
Practice problem:

Ans: Vx= -26.67 V

ix

V
ix

V
 Applications of Superposition Theorem

• Analyze networks that have two or more sources that

are not in series or parallel.
• Reveal the effect of each source on a particular
quantity of interest.
• For sources of different types (such as dc and ac
which affect the parameters of the network in a
different manner), apply a separate analysis for each
type, with the total result simply the algebraic sum of
the results.
 Limitations of superposition
Theorem
• Superposition theorem doesn’t work for
power calculation.
• Because power calculations involve either the
product of voltage and current, the square of
current or the square of the voltage, they are
not linear operations.
1.2.2 Thevenin’s Theorem
 1.2.2 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh
in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Soln:
• We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it
with a short circuit)
• And the 2-A current source (replacing it with an open circuit).

Finding Rth :
Finding VTh :

Applying mesh analysis to the two loops, we obtain

Fig. The Thevenin equivalent circuit
1. Redraw the circuit by excluding RL i.e R3 = 1Ω:

2. Determining RTh for the network in Fig. 9.33 by open circuiting

Current source
3. Determining ETh for the network in Fig. 9.33.
The voltage drop across R2 is, therefore

4.Substituting the Thevenin equivalent circuit in the

network external to the resistor R3 in Fig. 9.32.
IL
IL =ETh/(RTh+R3)
= 48/(6+7)
= 3.69A
Step-1: Open the RL & Redraw the circuit:
Step-2: Replace E by Short Circuit & Find RTh
Step-3: Finding VTh
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:
• This ckt contains a dependent
source.
• To find RTh, we set the
independent source equal to
zero but leave the dependent
source alone.
• Because of the presence of the
dependent source, we excite
the n/w with a voltage source
Vo connected to the terminals
as indicated in fig 4.32(a).
• Set Vo=1 V
• Our goal is to find io throgh
terminals, and then obtain
RTh = 1/io
Applications of Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in
analyzing power systems
• In the circuits where one particular resistor in the
circuit (called the “load” resistor) is subject to
change, and re-calculation of the circuit is
necessary with each trial value of load resistance,
to determine voltage across it and current
through it.
• Source modelling and resistance measurement
using the Wheatstone bridge provide applications
for Thevenin’s theorem.
1.2.3 Norton’s Theorem
1.2.3 Norton’s Theorem
1.2.3 Norton’s Theorem
 1.2.3 Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem Procedure
Preliminary:
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the
Norton equivalent circuit is found.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal
network.
RN:
3. Calculate RN = RTh by first setting all independent
sources to zero and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal
resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is
included in the original network, it must remain when the
sources are set to zero.)
 1.2.3 Norton’s Theorem
IN:
4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original
position and then finding the short-circuit current between
the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be
measured by an ammeter placed between the marked
terminals.
Conclusion:
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the
circuit previously removed replaced between the terminals of
the equivalent circuit.
Soln: Finding: RN Open circuit Current Source & Find RN across terminal ab

Finding: IN, isc SC the terminal ab and find IN flowing through

terminals ab

=0
 Finding: vth voc.

Alternatively, we may determine IN from VTh and RTh.

Soln:
Using superposition find IN
Applications of Norton’s Theorem
1.2.4 Reciprocity Theorem
 Reciprocity Theorem

Defn: In a linear network, if the position of excitation

and response are interchanged, their ratio remains
same.
Example: Using Reciprocity theorem show that,
Current I due to E flowing in circuit will not change by
interchanging each.

and
Practice Pb.1. Show that ‘Reciprocity’ is true for
the circuit shown in fig. 5.13
Practice Pb-2:
 Reciprocity Theorem
Application:
• This theorem is used for solving DC and AC
network which have many applications in
electromagnetism & electronics.
• Provided the circuit does not have any time
varying element
Limitations:
• The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to
single-source networks.
• It is, therefore, not a theorem used in the
analysis of multisource networks.
1.2.5 Millman’s Theorem
 Millman’s theorem
Voltage Sources
In Parallel

Millman's Theorem states that when a number of voltage

sources are in parallel having internal resistance, the
arrangement can be replaced by a single equivalent
voltage source in series with an equivalent series
resistance.
 Millman’s Theorem Steps
Step 1: Convert all voltage sources to current
sources
Soln:
Ans:
IT=11A
RT=1.67
VL=18.37V
IL=6.12A
Ans:
IL=39.3A
VL=220mV
Dual of Millman’s Theorem
Ans:
Ieq=3.01A
Req=8
VL=6.08V
 Ans:
Ieq=3.38mA
4.7k
Req=14.9k
VL=15.78V
 Application of Millman’s Theorem

• Millman's Theorem can be applied to a network

having a combination of voltage and current
sources since voltage source can be converted
into a current source and vice versa.
Limitation of Millman's Theorem
• Millman's theorem is applicable only to two
sources connected directly in parallel. Millman's
theorem is not applicable where there are
resistance elements between the sources.
1.2.6 Compensation Theorem
 Substitution or Compensation theorem
Statement: A resistor having a voltage V across it,
or a current I through it, can be replaced by an
ideal, independent voltage source V, or an ideal,
independent current source I, without disturbing
the rest of the circuit.
Example : Replace RL with its equivalent voltage source
(use compensation theorem)

RL

Sol: Voltage drop across RL

= IL . RL = 2 x 2 = 4 V
This voltage must
oppose the current IL
Solutions to 36, 37 & 38
 Applications of Compensation theorem

• In calculating the sensitivity of electrical

networks & bridges.
• It reflects the changes that can occur due to
incremental changes in the value of a
component
1.2.7 Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

• When designing a circuit, it is often important to

be able to answer one of the following questions:
– What load should be applied to a system to ensure
that the load is receiving maximum power from the
system?
– Or for a particular load, what conditions should be
imposed on the source to ensure that it will deliver
the maximum power available?
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

OR

Load will receive maximum power from a network when its

resistance is exactly equal to the Thevenin resistance of the
network applied to the load. That is,
Proof:

We now want show that the

maximum power occurs when RL is
equal to RTh.

The power transfer load will be

maximum when dp/dRL = 0
 Diff wrt to RL and
equate to zero

Showing that the maximum power transfer takes place when the
load resistance RL equals the Thevenin resistance RTh
Condition for maximum power to a load:
Solution:
 Applying mesh analysis:

Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across terminals a-b,

For maximum power transfer, RL = RTh = 9 Ω

And the maximum power is

Example: Find value of resistance to be connected at
A-B, so that maximum power is transferred by the
source. What is the power?
Solution:
• First evaluate the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

So maximum power is transferred when the load resistance is 8.33Ω

1.2.8 Tellegen’s theorem
 Tellegen’s theorem
• According to Tellegen’s theorem, the
summation of instantaneous powers
for the n number of branches in an
electrical network is zero.
• Tellegen’s theorem works on the principle
of the Law of Conservation of Energy
 Tellegen’s theorem
• Suppose n number of branches in an electrical network
have i1, i2, i3, .............in respective instantaneous
currents through them. These currents satisfy Kirchhoff's
Current Law.
• Again, suppose these branches have instantaneous
voltages across them are v1, v2, v3, ...........
vn respectively.
• If these voltages across these elements satisfy Kirchhoff
Voltage Law then,

Where,
n is the number of branches
vK is the voltage in the branch
iK is the current flowing through the branch
Ex.1 Calculate the power absorbed by each
element in the network shown in fig.1. Also verify
that Tellegen’s theorem is satisfied by this
network.

Fig.1
Let’s calculate the power absorbed by each element using
the sign convention for power.
P1 = (16)(1) = 16 W
P2 = (4)(1) = 4 W
P3 = (12)(1) = 12 W
P4 = (8)(2) = 16 W
P12 V = (12)(2) = 24 W
P24 V = (24)(−3) = −72 W

Let’s sum up the power absorbed by all elements:

16 + 4 + 12 + 16 + 24 − 72 = 0
This sum is zero, which verifies that Tellegen’s theorem is
satisfied.
Ex.2 Find Ix in Fig.2. using Tellegen’s theorem

Fig.2
Ex.3 Find Vx in the network in the figure using
Tellegen’s theorem

Fig.3

Ans: Vx = - 21V
 Application of Tellegen’s Theorem

• It is used in the digital signal processing

system for designing of filters.
• In the area of the biological and chemical
process.
• In topology and structure of reaction network
analysis.
• The theorem is used in chemical plants and oil
industries to determine the stability of any
complex systems.