SYNOPSIS:

Transmission Tower
Launching girders
Sky Scrapper
Bridge decks
Cooling Tower
Offshore platforms
Erecting light weight
Special forms for shells components on tall
 Braced domes and structures
 Space decks Support structure for heavy
High Rise Structures equipments and conveyors

Material handling Erection of articulated

structures
SITE ERECTION METHODS
Slide Slowing Method
A method of construction of the super structure is to erect girders,
whether steel or precast concrete girders, over temporary supports by
the side of the pier, opposite to the span and when ready, slewing same
into position.

Move the unit, full or part of the deck, if any, is added after the basic
girder structure with adequate bracings is slewed in

This method is adopted when the erection or casting of the girders is

being done simultaneously with the construction of the piers as in new
construction, in order to avoid delay later

Where pier height is too much it is adopted and in existing bridges case,
this method is adopted to replace the existing structure with stronger
unit
Common for both railway and road bridges but one difference is
deck, except for linking of rails in case of railway bridges and
weathering course & parapet in case of road bridges

For new bridges the staging for casting will have to be put up by
the side of the piers on one side

In case of replacement, similar staging will have to be erected on

the other side also for receiving the old girders and dismantling
them into parts before being taken away to stores

In both cases, some temporary arrangements over the piers or

adjacent to them in the alignment for the purpose of slewing in
will also be necessary
LAUNCHING METHODS
End Launching
This method is adopted mainly for long span prestressed concrete
and steel girders and mostly on new construction

The girder is cast or built up on the approach bank, and it is

longitudinally traversed over the opening it has to span and lowered
in position

For this purpose, a small temporary intermediate staging has to be

provided in the gap between piers for taking the girder across the
gap

For steel girder bridges , staging are arrange them one behind the
other, linked with temporary links and launch them together
Launching Girders
Fully cast prestressed concrete girders are not launched independently as
the cantilevering stress developed is considerable and the design difficult

The method adopted is to first launch a steel or aluminium supporting

frame or girder so that it spans over the gap

Once the launching of this girder over the gap on one side is over, the first
main girder is moved over this temporary girder or frame, supported at
intervals or pulled across

When the full length of the main girder has come over the span, it is jacked
up and temporarily held in position and the launching girder can be side –
slewed to take the position of the next girder over the span.
The main girder launched earlier is then lowered into position with
the helps of jacks

The next girder cast and ready on the approach is then launched
longitudinally over the temporary girder again and the process
repeated till all the permanent girders are put in position

The launching girder can then be moved over to the next span and it
can take the position required for taking on the first girder of the
next span

The girders of the next span can then be longitudinally taken over
the girders erected in the previous span and then over the
temporary girder on the next span and the process repeated
Erection of Concrete Girders with Cranes/ Derrick
If the bed is dry, the girders can be cast on the bed by the side of the
span and they can be erected by using two mobile cranes one on either
and with the help of a suitable derrick in the centre or one derrick each
on either end

If the height of the pier is not much and girders are too heavy to be
handled by the available crane or derrick, the girder can be jacked up
from either end on temporary trestles to pier top level and then side –
slewed in position launched and slewed has the minimum weight

The full deck slab can be cast subsequently

In the case of prestressed concrete girders there will be transverse

prestressing also involved
The diaphragm with necessary ducting should be cast after all the
girders are launched correctly and adjusted in position

Part prestressing is done before individual girders are lifted or

launched and remaining cables are tensioned, some before and
balance after or all after the deck is cast according to the design

This stage prestressing is done to take the maximum advantage of

prestressing

In doing such post – tensioning, extreme care has to be exercised in

following the sequence that has been given by the designers and any
small change can cause a crack in the system or unwanted lateral
deflection in the individual girder
Cantilevering Method
For very large spans, the method which is now used is the cantilevering
method

In this method, the erection starts from the abutment end and the
erection of the members ahead is done by using a crane which travels
on the top boom of the previously erected part of the structure in case
of steel and by using the support on the previously erected part
structure in case of prestressed concrete construction

Types : Howrah Bridge – Steel cantilevers

Sydney Harbour Bridge – Steel arch

Second Godavari Bridge – Steel simply supported

BRIDGE DECKS
The grade line of highway or railway track and the clearance
required under the bridge decide the use of deck type or through
type bridge

Incase the sufficient clearance is unavailable under the bridge, the

deck type bridges are the advantages over the through type bridges

The deck type bridges are relative economical

The height of piers and abutments are reduced are reduced in the
deck type bridges
SPACE DECKS
Of recent years a range on standard section mild steel tubes has
been manufactured in increasing quantity .

The advantages of a tubular section are that it has a uniform cross

section and its position does not have to be adjusted for maximum
strength as does an angle section and the surface area of a tubular
section is considerably less than standard tubular sections welded
together.

Erection of Space decks

The standard units of this type of roof consists of pyramid frames,
the tray and base of each unit consisting of light steel angles welded
together to which tubular steel diagonals are welded.
The diagonals are welded to the socketed couples at the apex of each
pyramid
The units are joined by bolting the angles of adjacent trays together
and threading tie bars between couplers of adjacent units. By
adjusting the tie bars the top of the deck may be flat
The finished deck is extremely rigid and can be provided for
comparatively long spans with few internal columns
This type of roof is more expensive than a pitched lattice steel roof
structure
The deck is connected to internal and external I section or hollow
rectangular section columns. The cheapest and most commonly
used form of coverings consists of wood wool laid on and dipped to
the deck and covered with felt roofing.
SPECIAL FORMS FOR SHELL
A structural shell is covered surface structure. It is generally
capable of transmitting loads in more than 2 directions to
support

These structures are highly efficient structurally when they are so

shaped, proportioned and supported that they transmit the
loads without bending or twisting

A shell is defined by its middle surface halfway between its outer

surface and inner surface

Depending upon the geometry of the middle surface, shell may

be classified as Dome, Barrel arch, Cone, Hyperbolic paraboloid
A thin shell has relatively small thickness compared to other
dimensions

It should not be so thin that the deformation would be large

compared with the thickness

The shell shearing stresses normal to the middle surface should be

negligible

Thin shells usually are designed so that normal shears, bonding

moments and torsions are very small except for relatively small
portions.
DOMES
Ribbed domes are the earliest type of braced domes .

A ribbed dome consists of a number identical meridional solid girders

or trusses, interconnected at the crown by a compression ring.

The rings are also connected by concentric rings to form grids in a

trapezium shape

It is stiffened by a steel or reinforced concrete tension ring at its base.

SCHWEDLER DOMES
A schwedler dome also consists of meridional ribs connected together
to a number of horizontal polygonal rings to stiffen the resulting
structure. So that it will be able to take unsymmetrical loads
Each trapezium formed by intersecting meriodional ribs with horizontal
rings is subdivided into two triangles by a diagonal member
Sometimes the trapezium may also be subdivided by two cross – diagonal
members
This type of dome was introduced by a German engineer J.W.Schwelder in
1863
The great popularity of schwedler domes is due to the fact that, on the
assumption of pin – connected joints, the structure can be analyzed as
statically determinate
In practice, in addition to axial forces, all the members are also under the
action of bending and torsional moments
Many attempts have been made in the past to simplify their analysis, but
precise applied to find the actual stress distribution
HIGH RISE STRUCTURES
Transmission Tower
Transmission towers are tall structures with relatively small cross
section and with a large ratio between the height and the maximum.
Towers are also called as masts or pylon.

Tower is a single cantilever freely standing , self-supporting structures

fixed at its base.

Transmission towers structures that are pin – connected to its

foundation and braced with guys or other elements. Similar examples
are water towers, radio, television towers, radio relay system etc.,

These towers of power transmission lines are used to support

transmission cables carry transmitting voltages exceeding 1,32,000 volts
Over long distance, since these cables carry heavy voltage, they provide
necessary clearance, where the transmission cables have maximum sag

On general the towers may be built up with three or more legs. But
generally all towers are built up with four legs and spared suitably. This
is because four leg gives sufficient stability to the structures.

There are different types of them:

Self supporting type
Flexible type
Semi-flexible
Line tower
Angle tower
Self supporting wide base
Guyed type
Self – supporting type towers are generally rigid in both the transverse
and longitudinal directions

Flexible type towers are not rigid in the longitudinal direction ie., in the
direction along the transmission cables

Line towers, when there is a straight portion of the power line, line
towers are preferred

Angle towers, when the direction of the power line is changed angle
towers are provided

The height of these towers should be within 20 – 40m

The towers of such height provide 6 – 10m clearance from the ground
surface to the point of maximum sag of the cables

These towers are also known as single, double or multiple circuit towers
depending upon the no of circuits supported by the towers
Single diagonal bracing tower have long free length and double
diagonal bracing or cross diagonal tower

Radio and television towers are self – supporting towers. For there
towers rigid diaphragms are provided at the top and at several
intermediate sections to the increase the stiffness of cross sections.

In masts they are guyed with wire ropes at one or more levels

The vertical loads acting on towers are the dead load and live load

The vertical loads on the power transmission line towers include self
weight of towers insulators, fittings, ice coating, line man with tools

The self weight of towers is found by a general existing Ryle’s empirical

formula (For suspension , dead load towers)
SKYSCRAPERS
Skyscraper (high rise) is a tall habitable building.

Emporis data committee defines skyscraper as a building which is 35

meters or greater in height , and is divided at regular intervals into
occupiable levels.

Some structural engineers define a skyscraper as any vertical

construction for which wind is a more significant load factor than
weight.

The first skyscrapers is considered the Home Insurance Building in

Chicago

Ten storey structure was constructed in 1884 – 1885. Another

contender for the title is the 1892 ten – storey Wainwright Building
by Louis Sullivan, which still stands in St. Louis, Missouri.
The crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete,
water pumps, elevators.

Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare. It was
impractical to have people walk up so many flights of stairs, and water
pressure could only provide running water to about 50 feet (15m)

The weight-bearing components of skyscrapers differ substantially from

those of other buildings.

Their walls can support buildings up to about four stories, while

skyscrapers are larger buildings that must be supported by a skeletal
frame

The walls than hang off this frame like curtains hence the architectural
term curtain wall for tall systems of glass that are laterally supported by
these skeletal frames.

Skyscrapers was a nautical term for a tall mast or sail on a sailing ship
 Worlds 10 Tallest Buildings
Rank Building, City Year Storyes Height in
Meters Feet
1 Freedom Towers, New York 2005 121 541 1776
2 Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 509 1671
3 Petronas twin tower, Kuala lumpur, 1998 88 452 1483
Malaysia
4 Sears tower, Chicago 1974 110 442 1451
5 Jin Mao Buildings, Shanghai 1999 88 421 1380
6 Two International Finance Centre, Hong 2003 88 415 1362
Kong
7 CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou, China 1996 80 391 1283
8 Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China 1996 69 384 1260
9 Empire State Building, New York 1931 102 381 1250
10 Central Plaza, Hong Kong 1992 78 374 1227
COOLING TOWER
Cooling towers are widely used for cooling large quantities of water in
thermal power station , refineries , atomic power plants , steel plants , air
conditioning and other industrial plant.

A cooling towers incorporates a draft tower distributing and spraying

devices and a cold water basin.

A typical section of hyperbolic cooling tower of height 100m

The draft is induced naturally or mechanically.

Hot water is pumped to a certain height and then distributed through a

piping system of nozzles, where it splashes over a system called “Filling or
Stacking”

The filling may be of wood or transite material placed in several layers

The water splashes drips and flows through the layer of filling

The air which is forced upward either mechanically or by atmospheric

pressure difference rises through the driplets or films of the hot water and
consequently cools the water through evaporation and convection

The cooled water is collected in a pond at the bottom of the towers and
then recirculated for industrial use

Hyperboloid of revolution

The hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet is generally used for cooling

towers of thermal station

The great advantage of this type of shell is that it is generated by two

families of intersecting straight lines and the form work can be achieved by
straight boards warped only slightly over the lengths

The intersecting grid of straight lines forms rhombuses of intersection

The shell surface can also be built of pre-cast rhombic elements which are
repeated along the complete circumferences at fixed heights

The generation of the hyperboloid of revolution is by intersecting straight

lines
MATERIAL HANDLING
Material handling is the movement, storage, control & protection of
materials, goods & products throughout the process of manufacturing,
distribution consumption and disposal.

The focus is on the methods, mechanical equipment systems and related

controls used to achieve these functions

Material handling management consists use of a proper technique for

moving, transporting, storing or distributing materials with or without
the help of mechanical appliances.

Because of various complexities in the construction process,

management must be fully acquainted with various material handling
devices so that unit cost of construction can be down
 All material handling activities must be simplified and must be fully safe
preventing any accidents

Also material movement planning must be economical is terms of time

and labour

Material handling objective:

 The right amount

 The right material
 At the right time
 In the right position
 In the right sequence
 For the right cost
 The handling of material depends on three items. They identified as
follows

 Identification of source of building material

 Identification of quantity and quality of material
 Identification of cost of building material
Principles
Orientation principle

Planning principle

System principle

Unit load principle

Space utilization principle

Standardization principle Safety principle

Ergonomic principle Computerization principle

Energy principle System flow principle

Ecology principle Layout principle

Mechanization principle Cost principle

Flexibility principle Maintenance principle

Simplification principle Obsolescence principle

Gravity principle
MATERIAL MANAGEMENT
Material management is concerned with ensuring that the quantity
and quality required are on the job as per requirement

The construction manager is concerned about the nature of material

handling problems like quantity , quality , price , delivery date , mode
of transportation , inspection , counting , cost , storage and
protection.

Considerable time and effort is spent on a practical network that will

satisfy and resource limitations

However, such a schedule is not used unless supported by the timely

delivery of materials
The material for delivery to the site can be broadly classified as follows,

Bulk items

Standard items

Fabricated items

Bulk items - like earth , bricks , cement , sand , stone chips , steel sheet
and asphalt that are obtained in a semi-processed state

Standard items - all shelf items that can be procured from the market
like pipes and pipe fittings.

Fabricated items – are the items that are specially built as per
specification and sizes for the project. Built as per specification like roof
truss, doors, windows, electrical panel etc.
ERECTING LIGHT WEIGHT COMPONENTS ON TALL STRUCTURE
Tall buildings are generally multi storey structures where greater part
of construction of beams and stanchreons
Erection Procedure for Multi Storey Building
The order of erection follows pattern of columns, girder and beams or
columns, trusses and purlins. Buildings are generally erected by
cranes and beyond the reach are erected guy derricks
The step wise operation is as follows
Guy derrick mast is assembled on ground with its base in
approximate required location. The mast is tipped up vertically and
guys are anchored to column bases. The boom is inserted and topping
lift and load lines are served. The derrick is ready to operate. The first
– tier steel is erected
The bottom is removed from boom seat by picking with topping
lift falls, revolved 18degree and placed in a temporary jumping
shoe. The top of boom is guyed off with temporary guys

The load falls are attached to mast above its center of gravity, the
mast guys are moved to top of next tier and mast is raised to its
new position. The mast guys are adjusted and load falls unhooked

The temporary guys of boom are removed and the topping lift falls
are used to raise the boom and place it in the boom seat. The
derrick is now ready to operate and the next tier of steel is erected

This operation is repeated until all tiers are erected

Safety Rules
See that the equipment is not over loaded. Be certain of load to be
lifted

All bolts and splice material on lattice derricks and crane sections
have been inserted

Do not open the legs of brother chains to too large an angle

The rings of chain slings is trig enough for crane hook

Avoid sudden shocks when lifting

SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR HEAVY EQUIPMENT
Column Base
Foundation is necessary for a column to distribute the column load
on sufficient area of the soil so that the bearing capacity of the soil is
not exceeded, it is also equally important that the column load be
applied on sufficient area of the concrete foundation so that bearing
strength of the concrete is not exceeded
A steel base plate is therefore used to spread the column loaf on
sufficient area of the concrete foundation
Base plate used may be of following types
Slab bases
Gusseted bases
Slab bases : In this case the column stands directly on the base plate the
bearing end of the column is machined so that the column load is
transferred to the slab base by bearing
Gusseted base: Gusseted base plates are used in columns carrying heavy
loads.
In this case fastenings are used to connect the base plate and the column in
the form of gusset plate, angles etc.,
In case the end of the column is sufficiently machined so as to provide full
bearing on the base plate, it is usual to assume that half the column load is
liable to be transferred to the base plate through the fastenings and the
balance load is transferred to the base plate by direct bearing.
Suppose the ends of the column and gusset plates are not exactly faced for
full or complete bearing. Then it is usual to design the fastenings to
transmit all the forces to which the base is subjected.
Grillage foundation: It is provided for a column carrying heavy load when it
has to transfer its load to a soil of low bearing strength

This foundation consists of two or more layers or tiers of steel beams, the
layers being provide one above the other at right angles at each other .

The beams are completely encased in well compared concrete.

Generally only two tiers of beams are used

The column rests on a base plate through which the load is transmitted to
the upper tiers beams

These beams in turn transfer the loads to the lower tier beams. From the
lower tier beams the load will be transmitted to the soil.
ERECTION OF ARTICULATE STRUCTURE
Bow String Girder Type Bridges
The bow string girder type bridges derives its name from its shape. The
arch rib and the tie respectively resemble bow and string.

The flooring of bridge rests on ties and the load is transmitted to the arch
rib through suspenders

Suitable bracing may also be provided in case of steel bow string girders

The bow string girder type bridge removes the following two
disadvantages of the arch bridges

The horizontal thrust is resisted by ties, hence the reactions at supports

are vertical and not inclined as in case of the arch bridges. As a result of
vertical reactions the supports require lighter sections
 The bow – string girders project above the formation level of road or
railway line. Hence, the question of accommodating the rise between
the level of approaches and the springing level of arch of arch close not
arise

The bow string girder type bridges are therefore very much suitable for
multiple spans and at places where the available clearance is restricted

Deck Type and Through Types Truss Bridges

In the deck type truss bridges, the floor system rests on the top chord.

In the through type truss bridges, the floor system rests on the bottom
chord. Through type warren truss bridge with verticals

Although the parallel chord trusses are used for the through type truss
bridges, but the lines of various numbers of parallel chord truss bridges
are more in harmony with deck type truss bridges
Component Parts of Truss Bridge
The various component parts consists of

The main vertical trusses

The floor system

The bottom lateral bracing

The top lateral bracing

The portal bracing

The sway bracing

Cable Stayed Bridge
Cable – stayed bridges may look similar to suspensions bridges both have
roadways that hang from cables and both have towers

But the two bridges support the load of the roadway in very different ways.
The difference lies in how the cables are connected to the towers

In suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting
the load to the anchorages at either end

In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which alone
bear the load

The cables can be attached to the roadway in a variety of ways. In radial

pattern, cables extend from several points on the road to a single point at the
top of the tower

In a parallel pattern, cables are attached at different heights along the tower,
running parallel to one other
Construction Sequence of Cable Stayed Bridge
The cable stayed bridges are similar to the suspension bridge except that
there are no suspenders in the cable stayed bridges and the cables are
directly stretched from towers to connect with the decking
Thus no special internal anchorage is required for the cables as in case of
suspension bridges because the anchorage at one end is done in the girder
and at the other on top of tower
Each because in the girder introduces horizontal and vertical forces
The cables can be arranged with two plane system or one plane system.
The two plane system requires additional width to accommodate the
towers and deck anchorages
But in case of one plane system the anchorage at deck level can be
accommodated in the traffic median and it results in the least value of
total width of the deck
In principle the cable stayed bridge essentially of the following three
elements

Bridge deck

Pylons or tower

Stay cables

The stay cables are the principal structural elements because they play an
important role in the design, stability and performance of the structure as
a whole

The different types of stay cables are

locked coil wire ropes or stranded ropes

long lay spiral strand cables

parallel or semi parallel wire cables

The deck in case of the cable – stayed bridges is supported by a number of
cables meeting in a bunch at the tower, known as the harp form

The use of multiple cables facilities smaller distances between points of

supports for the deck girders and it results in the reduced structural depth

The cable stayed decks are less prone to the wind induced oscillations than
the suspension bridges because of the damping effect of the inclined cables

The brick deck may be in the form of steel prone or RCC or prestressed
concrete girders.

The concrete girders possess the following advantages

As their damping effect is very high, the vibration effects are also small

They possess much higher stiffness and hence, they exhibit comparatively
less deflection