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Biology Chapter 21 Sylvia Mader Modified

This document provides an overview of a lecture on DNA biology and technology. It discusses the structure and functions of DNA and RNA, how DNA replicates, the process of transcription and translation, the genetic code, regulation of gene expression, findings from the human genome project, and applications of gene therapy. Key points covered include the double helix structure of DNA, the three types of RNA and their roles, DNA replication through semiconservative means, and the central dogma of biology regarding the flow of genetic information.

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abdallah
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333 views29 pages

Biology Chapter 21 Sylvia Mader Modified

This document provides an overview of a lecture on DNA biology and technology. It discusses the structure and functions of DNA and RNA, how DNA replicates, the process of transcription and translation, the genetic code, regulation of gene expression, findings from the human genome project, and applications of gene therapy. Key points covered include the double helix structure of DNA, the three types of RNA and their roles, DNA replication through semiconservative means, and the central dogma of biology regarding the flow of genetic information.

Uploaded by

abdallah
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Biology

Fall 2017/2018

DNA Biology and


Technology

Chapter 21
Human Biology by
Sylvia Mader

Lecture Presentation by
Prof Samir Awadallah
College of Health Sciences
University of Sharjah
DNA Biology and Technology

Chapter 21
Points to consider
• What are three functions of DNA?
• Review DNA and RNA structure.
• What are the 3 types of RNA and what are their functions?
• Compare and contrast the structure and function of DNA and RNA.
• How does DNA replicate?
• Describe transcription and translation in detail.
• Describe the genetic code.
• Review protein structure and function.
• What are the 4 levels of regulating gene expression.
• What did we learn from the human genome project and where are
we going from here?
• What is ex vivo and in vivo gene therapy?
• Define biotechnology, transgenic organisms, genetic engineering
and recombinant DNA.
• What are some uses of transgenic bacteria, plants and animals?
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

What must DNA do?


DNA is the genetic material that is found in the form of
chromosomes, mostly in the nucleus of eukaryotic
cells.
The genetic material (DNA) must be able to do the
following:
• -Replicate to be passed on to the next generation
• -Store information
• -Undergo mutations to provide genetic diversity
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

DNA structure: A review


• Double-stranded helix

• Each strand is composed of repeating nucleotides


(polynucleotide) made of a pentose sugar (deoxyribose),
phosphate and a nitrogenous base

• Sugar and phosphate make up the backbone while the


bases make up the “rungs” of the ladder

• Bases have complementary pairing with cytosine (C) pairs


with guanine (G) and adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T)
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

DNA structure
The phosphate-sugar backbones are oriented in different directions. The strands
are antiparallel: the carbons are numbered as 3’-5’ and 5’-3’ directions
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

How does DNA replicate?


DNA Replication is the process of
copying DNA helix.
1. The two strands unwind by breaking
the H bonds by the enzyme DNA helicase
2. Complementary nucleotides are added
to each strand by DNA polymerase
3. Each new double-stranded helix is made of
one new strand and one old strand
(semiconservative replication)
4. The sequence of bases makes each
individual unique

The enzyme DNA Ligase seals any breaks


in the sugar-phosphate backbone.
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

DNA replication
DNA replication
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

RNA structure and function


• Single-stranded
• Composed of repeating nucleotides
• Sugar-phosphate backbone (Ribose-phosphate)
• Bases are A, C, G and uracil (U)

• Three types of RNA


– Ribosomal (rRNA): Produced in nucleolus by DNA, joins with
proteins to form ribosomes
– Messenger (mRNA): Produced from DNA in nucleus, carries
genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes in cytosol
– Transfer (tRNA): Produced in nucleus, transfers amino acids to a
ribosome where they are added to a forming protein.
– Each tRNA binds with one amino acid (at least 20 different
types of tRNA)
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

RNA structure
21.1 DNA and RNA structure and function

Comparing DNA and RNA


• Similarities: • Differences:
– Are nucleic acids – DNA is double stranded
– Are made of nucleotides while RNA is single
– Have sugar-phosphate stranded
backbones – DNA has T while RNA has U
– Are found in the nucleus – RNA is also found in the
cytoplasm as well as the
nucleus while DNA is not
– Deoxyribose in DNA and
Ribose in RNA
21.2 Gene expression

Proteins: A review
• Composed of subunits of amino acids

• Sequence of amino acids determines the shape of the


protein

• Synthesized at the ribosomes

• Important for diverse functions in the body including


hormones, enzymes and transport

• Can denature causing a loss of function


21.2 Gene expression

Proteins: A review of structure


21.2 Gene expression

Gene expression
Two Steps:
Transcription – A portion of
DNA (gene) is read to make a
mRNA in the nucleus of our Cells.
(i.e.: a sequence of nucleotides in
DNA is copied to a sequence of
nucleotides in mRNA)

Translation – Reading the mRNA to


make a protein in the Cytoplasm
(i.e.: a sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA is translated to a sequence
of amino acids in a protein)
21.2 Gene expression

Overview of transcription and translation


21.2 Gene expression

The genetic code

• Made of 4 bases
• Bases act as a code for
amino acids in translation
• Every 3 bases on the
mRNA is called a codon.
• Each codon represent a
specific amino acid.
• A total of 64 codons are
made from the 4 bases

61 for a.a and 3 stop codons


21.2 Gene expression

1. Transcription
• mRNA is made from a DNA
template

• mRNA is processed before


leaving the nucleus

• mRNA moves to the ribosomes


to be read

• Every 3 bases on the mRNA is


called a codon and codes for a
particular amino acid in
translation
21.2 Gene expression

Processing of mRNA after transcription


Modifications of mRNA:
The newly synthesized primary mRNA
become mature mRNA after processing.

Introns: segments of mRNA that does


not code for functional proteins
Exons: are parts of mRNA that are
expressed to proteins.

• One end of the RNA is capped


(adding an altered guanine
nucleotide)
• The other end, a poly-A tail is
added
• Introns are removed, and exons
joined with each others forming a
mature mRNA.
21.2 Gene expression

2. Translation
3 steps:
1. Initiation: mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit
and causes 2 ribosomal units to associate

2. Elongation: polypeptide lengthens


• tRNA picks up an amino acid
• tRNA has an anticodon that is complementary to the codon on
the mRNA
• tRNA anticodon binds to the codon and drops off an amino acid
to the growing polypeptide

3. Termination: a stop codon on the mRNA causes the


ribosome to fall off the mRNA
21.2 Gene expression

Visualizing the 3 steps of translation


Polyribosomes
Summary of Transcription and Translation
21.2 Gene expression

Regulation of gene expression


Gene expression is controlled at 4 levels:
1. Transcriptional control (nucleus):
Which gene? Rate of transcription?
• e.g. chromatin density and transcription factors

2. Posttranscriptional control (nucleus)


How mRNA is processed? How fast mRNA can leave nucleus to
start translation?
e.g. mRNA processing

3. Translational control (cytoplasm)


Life span of mRNA in cytoplasm? How fast or efficient in
binding with ribosomes?
• e.g. Differential ability of mRNA to bind ribosomes

4. Posttranslational control (cytoplasm)


Protein modification? Protein enzyme regulation?
e.g. changes to the protein to make it functional
21.3 Genomics

What did we learn from the human genome


project (HGP)?
• Humans consist of about 3 billion bases and 20,500
genes

• Human genome sequenced in 2003

• There are many polymorphisms or small regions of


DNA that vary among individuals were identified

• Genome size is not correlated with the number of


genes or complexity of the organisms
21.3 Genomics

What is the next step in the HGP?


• Functional genomics
• Understanding how the 20,500 genes function
• Less than 2% of human genome codes for functional proteins
• Understanding the function of gene deserts (82 regions that
make up 3% of the genome lacking identifiable genes)

• Comparative genomics
• Help understand how species have evolved (Human vs.
animals?)
• Comparing genomes may help identify base sequences that
cause human illness

DNA in Human and Chimpanzee: 95%-98% alike


DNA in Human and Mouse: 85% alike
Help in our understanding of gene regulation •
21.3 Genomics

How can we modify a person’s genome?


• Gene therapy - insertion of genetic material into
human cells to treat a disorder
– Ex vivo therapy – cells are removed for a person, altered
and then returned to the patient
– In vivo therapy – a gene is directly inserted into an
individual through a vector (e.g. viruses) or directly
injected to replace mutated genes or to restore normal
controls over gene activity

• Gene therapy has been most successful in treating


cancer
21.3 Genomics

Ex vivo gene therapy

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