UNIT -1(a)

Part-2
Layering Scenario
Network Software
•Protocol hierarchies
•Design issues for the layers
•Connection-oriented versus connectionless service
•Service primitives
•Relationship of services to protocols
 Protocols and Elements of Protocol
• A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of rules that
govern communications. It determines what is communicated, how it
is communicated and when it is communicated. The key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics and timing
• Elements of a protocol:
– Syntax: structure or format of data
• Example: 8-bits address of sender, 8-bits address of receiver

– Semantics: meaning of each section of bits

• Example: Does the address is a route to be taken or the final destination
of the message

– Timing: when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent
• Example: sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps  overload and data loose
 Protocol Hierarchies
• To reduce the design complexity,
networks are organized as stack of
layers or levels each one built upon the
one below.
• The rules and conventions used in the
conversation are collectively knows as
the layer n protocol.
• A protocol is an agreement between the
communicating parties on how the
communication has to proceed.
• The entities comprises the corresponding
layers on different machines know as
peers.
• The actual communication occurs
through physical medium.
• Between each pair of adjacent layers is
known as an interface.
• A set of layers and protocols is known as
Network Architecture.
• A list of protocols used by a system, one
protocol per layer, is known as protocol
stack.
Layers, Protocols and interfaces
 Example explaining how the communication is
provided to the top five layer network.

•The peer abstraction is

crucial in all network design.
•The unmanageable task of
designing the complex
network is broken into several
smaller, manageable design
problems ie., the design of
individual layers.
•The lower layers of a
protocol hierarchy are
implemented in hardware or
firmware.
 Design Issues
The key design issue in computer networks are present in several layers.
• Addressing
– Needs the mechanism for identifying the senders and receivers
– In networks, as many computers are there, a means is needed for a process on
one machine to specify with whom it wants to communicate.
– Having a multiple destinations, some addressing is needed to specify a specific
destination.
• Rules for data transfer
– In the network, the data travels in one direction or in both ways.
– The protocol must also determine how many number of logical channels, the
connection corresponds to and the their priorities.
– Most of the networks at least provide two logical channels per connection, one
for normal data and other for urgent data.
• Error Control
– It is an important issue because physical communication circuits are not
perfect.
• Ordering the message
– All channels will not preserve the order of messages sent on them.
– Channels has to deal with possible loss of sequencing, protocol must make
explicit provision at the receiver to reassemble them properly.
• Flow Control
– At every level is how to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with
data.
– Some of them involve feedback from the receiver to the sender, either directly
or indirectly.
– Limit the sender to an agreed-on transmission rate.
• Ability to process arbitrarily long/ short message
– Another issue at several levels is the inability of all processes to accept
arbitrarily long messages. This leads to a mechanisms for disassembling,
transmitting and then reassembling messages.
– Another issue is to processes insist of transmitting small messages data
separately is inefficient. Better to gather several small messages heading
toward a common destination into a single large message and disassembler the
large message at the other side.
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
– When it is inconvenient or expensive to set up a separate connection for
each pair of communicating processes, the underlying layer can decide to
use the same connection for multiple, unrelated conversations.
– Multiplexing and demultiplexing is done transparently and can be used by
any layer.
– Multiplexing is needed in the physical layer. Where all the traffic for all
connections has to be sent over a few physical circuits.
• Routing
– When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route
must be chosen.
– Decision must be split over two or more layers.
– A low level decision has to made to select one of the available circuits
based on the traffic load.
 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Service
•Connection-oriented service:
 It is modeled after the telephone system.
Reliable connection oriented service has two minor variations ie., message
sequences and byte stream.
•Connectionless service:
 It is modeled after the postal system.
Unreliable connectionless service is called as datagram service. Ex: Telegram
Service.
To make reliability essential, the acknowledge datagram service can be
provided. Ex: Registered Letter requesting a return receipt.

Six different types of service.

 Service Primitives
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to
a user process to access the service.
• The primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action
taken by a peer entity.
• The set of primitives available depend on the nature of the service being
provided.
• Consider the example of the service primitives that provide to implement a
reliable byte stream in a client-server environment.
Packets send in a simple client-server interaction
on a connection oriented network
 The Relationship of Services to Protocols
• Services:
– It is a set of primitives that a layer provides to the layers above it.
– It defines what operation that the layer is prepared to perform, but it does
not says how these operations are implemented.
– It relates to an interface between the two layers, with the lower layer
being the service provider and the upper layer being the service user.
• Protocols:
– It is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets or
messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
– Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions.
– Protocols relate the packets sent between peer entities on different
machines.
Summary of LAYERED TASKS
• Network Architecture:
 General blue prints that guide the design and implementation of networks.
 Examples: OSI architecture, Internet architecture
 Abstraction of the different services and procedures.
 Abstraction naturally leads to layering.
• Concepts of Layers:
 Each layer provides a specific set of services.
 Services are provided through the definition of protocols.
 Each layer uses the services provided by the upper/ lower layers.
 Layers use protocols to communicate with each others.
 Each layer provides a specific set of services.
 Layering provides two nice features:
 Decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable
components.
 Provides a more modular design, modifying the functionality of the
different layers without affecting the whole system!
 Reference Models
• OSI Reference Model
 It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
 The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards Established in
1947 .
 The protocols associated with the OSI model are rarely used, but the model is
general and still valid, and the features at each layer are very important.
 It has seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation and Application Layers
• TCP/IP Reference Model
 The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI
model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: Host-to-
network, Internet, Transport, and Application.
 When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is
made of five layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, and Application.
 This model is not in use but the protocols are widely used.
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL
•The model is known as ISO OSI Reference Model because it deals with connecting
open systems i.e., the systems that are open for communication with other systems.
•It has seven layers.
• The principles of these seven layers are:
A layer is created where different abstractions is needed.
Each layer performs a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer is chosen with definition of internationally
standardized protocols.
 The layer boundaries are chosen to minimize information flow across the
interfaces.
The number of layers must be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that
architecture does not become unwieldy.
•OSI Model is not a network architecture, as it does not specify the exact services and
protocols used in each layer.
The OSI Reference Model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange of Data using the OSI model
 Encapsulation
• Another aspect of data communications in the
OSI model is encapsulation.
– The data protion of a packet at level N-1 carries
the whole packet (data and header and maybe
trailer) from level N.
– Level N-1 is not aware of which part of the
encapsulated packet is data and which part is
the header or trailer.
– For level N-1, the whole packet coming from
level N is treated as one logical unit.
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The seven layers of the OSI Model are:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
 Physical layer
• It is concerned with transmitting the raw bits over a communication channel.
• The design issues here deals with the mechanical, electrical and timing
interfaces, and the physical transmission medium which lies below the physical
layer.
• It defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have
to perform for transmission to occur.
• The physical layer is also concerned with:
– Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.
– Representation of bits
– Data rate
– Synchronization of bits
– Line configuration
– Physical topology
– Transmission mode
 Data Link layer
• The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a
line that appears error free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer.
• It break up the input data into data frames and transmit the frames sequentially.
• It transforms the physical layer a raw transmission facility to reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
• There are other responsibilities of data link layer include:
– Framing

– Physical addressing

– Flow control

– Error control

– Access control
• Broadcast networks have an issue how to control access to the shared channel. A
special sub layer of the data link layer, i.e., medium access control layer deals with
this problem.
 Network layer
• It controls the operation of the subnet.
• The key design issue is determining how the packets are routed from source to destination.
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host.
• At the sender side, data is received from the higher layer (transport) and passed down to the
lower layer (data link).
• At the receiver side, data is received from the lower layer (data link) and passed up to the
upper layer (transport).
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer.
• If the two systems are attached to different networks with connecting devices between the
networks, there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination
delivery.
• Other responsibilities of network layer include:
– Logical addressing
– Routing
 Transport layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.
• At the sender side, it receives application data and passes it down to the network
layer.
• At the receiver side, it receives data from the network layer and passes it up to the
appropriate process.
• Other responsibilities of transport layer:
– Service-point addressing
– Segmentation and reassembly
– Connection control
– Flow control
– Error control
• Again, the transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
• Unlike the network layer which is source-to-destination delivery, the transport layer
is process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
 Session layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
• Specific responsibilities of the session layer include:
– Dialog control
– Synchronization
 Presentation layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with syntax and semantics of the information
exchange between two systems.
• Specific responsibilities of presentation layer:
– Translation
– Encryption
– Compression
 Application layer
• The application layer enables user, weather human or software, to access the
network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as e-mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
• Specific responsibilities of presentation layer:
– Network virtual terminal
– File transfer, access, and management
– Mail services
– Directory services
Summary of layers

2.28
 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not

exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application.
• When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
The Layers in the TCP/IP
Protocol Suite
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of

interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality.
•The layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain
relatively independent protocols.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper-
level protocol is supported by one or more
lower-level protocols.

2.31
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• Physical and Data Link Layers
– No specific protocol is defined at this layer, rather, TCP/IP
model supports all the standard and proprietary
protocols.
– For instance, a network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a
local-area network or a wide-area network.
• Network layer (internetwork layer)
– TCP/IP at this layer supports the Internetworking Protocol
(IP)
– There are also some other protocols that support data
movement in this layer. Including: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and
IGMP.

2.32
Protocols at The Network Layer

• Internetworking Protocol (IP)

 Most important protocol of the TCP/IP network stack!
 Implements internetworking.
 IP is an unreliable and connectionless protocol- a best-effort
delivery.
 It is host-to-host protocol.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 It is used to find the physical address (NIC) of the node after
its Network address is known.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 It is used to find the Internet address of the node after its
physical address is known.
2.33
 Protocols at The Network Layer

• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

It is used by hosts and gateways to send notification of
datagrams ( packets) problem back to the sender.
• Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
It is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of
messages to a group of recipients.
• Transport Layer
– In this layer, the protocol is responsible for
delivery of message from a process to
another process.
2.34
Protocols at The Transport Layer
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 It adds port addresses, checksum error control, and
length information to the data from the upper layer.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 It is reliable and connection-oriented.

• Stream Control Transmission Protocol (STCP)

 It supports the newer application e.g. voice over the
Internet.
 It combine best features of UDP and TCP.

2.35
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• Application Layer
– The application layer in TCP/IP is
equivalent to the combined session,
presentation, and application.

2.36
2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an

internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
• physical (link ) addresses ,
• logical (IP) addresses,
• port addresses, and
• specific addresses.

2.37
2-5 ADDRESSING

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.38
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in
TCP/IP

2.39
2-5 ADDRESSING
• Physical Addresses
– It is knwon as link address .
– It is the address of a node as defined by its
LAN or WAN.
– The size and format of the address depends
on the network.
• Ethernet uses 6-bytes (48-bits)  NIC
• LocalTalk (Apple) uses 1-byte dynamic
address

2.40
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.

2.41
 Example 2.2

As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area

networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address
written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as
shown below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

Also known as a MAC address

2.42
2-5 ADDRESSING
• Logical Addresses
– Necessary for universal communications that
are independent of underlying physical
networks.
– Physical address is not enough in an
internetwork environment where the different
network can have different address formats.
– A logical address in the Internet is 32-bits.

– No two hosts on the Internet have the same IP

address.

2.43
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two

routers connecting three LANs. Each device
(computer or router) has a pair of addresses
(logical and physical) for each connection. In this
case, each computer is connected to only one link
and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each
router, however, is connected to three networks
(only two are shown in the figure). So each router
has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
2.44
Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.45
 Note

• The physical addresses will change from

hop to hop, but the logical addresses
usually remain the same.
• No two hosts on the Internet have the
same IP address.

2.46
2-5 ADDRESSING

• Port Addresses
– It is necessary for the receiver device that
runs multiple process to receive data
simultaneously  this make a need to
label each process
– A port address is 16-bits.

2.47
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.

2.48
Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.49
 Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.50
2-5 ADDRESSING

• Specific Addresses
– Examples
• e-mail address
• URL address

– Those addresses get changed to the

corresponding port and logical address by
the sending computer.

2.51