PRESENTATION

ON
EARTHQUAKE
 Introduction
☼ An earthquake is the shaking of the ground caused by an abrupt shift of rock along a
fracture in the Earth, called a fault.
☼The size of an earthquake is indicated by a number called its magnitude. Magnitude is
calculated from a measurement of either the amplitude or the duration of specific types of
recorded seismic waves.
☼Magnitude is determined from measurements made from seismograms and not on reports of
shaking or interpretations of building damage. The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the
amount of ground shaking at a particular site, and it is determined from reports of human reaction
to shaking, damage done to structures, and other effects.
☼ Within seconds, an earthquake releases stress that has slowly accumulated within the rock,
sometimes over hundreds of years.

The Earth is divided into a solid core, the The crust is broken up into plates. Convection
molten magma mantle and the crust, currents in the magma cause the plates to move in
floating on top. different directions.
 How Earthquake Happens? OR CAUSES
Fault types
• Fault: sudden change in rock structure at contact between two tectonic blocks
• Cause: relative slip between tectonic plates:
– slow slip, which produces no ground shaking
– sudden slip, that generates earthquakes
Strike-slip fault: are vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where the blocks have mostly moved
horizontally
Normal fault: fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically, while the rock mass above an
inclined fault moves down
Reverse fault: fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically, while the rock above the
fault moves up
Oblique fault: the most general case, a combination of vertical and horizontal movement

 MOVEMENTS OF TECTONIC PLATES: -They are caused because of tectonic plates are continuously
floating on the mantle and thus they are set in motion.
 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS: -They are caused due to internal pressure building up inside the Earth's crust.
 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE EXPLOSIONS: They are caused due to man made explosions such as
blasts, tunneling, etc.
 PREDICTION
• Earthquakes are very hard to predict
• Scientists can search for clues:
– changes in well water levels
– gas emissions
– cracks appearing in rocks
– even strange animal behaviour!!
• Computers can analyse data to forecast future earthquakes BUT they can’t be predicted
accurately as they occur unexpectedly.

PREPARATION
Good panning and preparation can reduce the effects of tectonic hazards
EMERGENCY DRILLS are held to practise what to do in the event of an earthquake
 FAMILIES can organise supplies of food and water, dust masks, spare clothes, basic medical supplies,
shelters, torches, batteries, mobile phones and other useful stuff
 EMEGENCY SERVICES such as the Police, Fire Brigade and Ambulance service can be well
prepared to deal with any hazard
 EMERGENCY SUPPLIES of water and power can be organised in advance
 BUILDING & ROAD DESIGNS can be planned for earth movements so they don’t collapse under
the strain
e.g. New skyscrapers in earthquake zones can be built with a computer controlled counterweight, cross
bracings and special foundations to reduce the impact of an earthquake
 Seismic waves
• Body waves
• – P waves: primary, compression or longitudinal
• – S waves: secondary, shear or transversal
• Surface waves
• – Rayleigh waves: earth displacements occur in a vertical plane
• – Love waves: earth displacements occur in a horizontal plane
 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE:-
PRIMARY EFFECTS of Earthquakes (immediately an EQ strikes)….e.g. Buildings collapse, Things
fall from buildings, Dams burst

SECONDARY EFFECTS of Earthquakes (problems hours/days after an EQ) ..e.g. Fire breaks out,
Disease, Water supply cut off, TSUNAMIS

LONG-TERM EFFECTS of Earthquakes (problems years after an EQ) e.g. Unemployment,

Homelessness, Economical & Emotional damage

EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON A STRUCTURE

Structural elements, such as walls, columns and beams, are only bearing the weight of
the building and the live load under normal conditions: mostly compression forces for
the walls and columns, and vertical bending for the
beams. Under dynamic load, they also have to withstand horizontal bending and shear
forces, and extra vertical compression forces

It is a mistake to believe that earthen buildings are more sensitive to earthquakes than
other ones which are built with stones, bricks or concrete blocks. The matter is always
how well buildings are designed and built..
 Failure mechanism of walls

GROUND MOTION GROUND MOTION

IN THE WALL PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE WALL

BEHAVIOUR OF BUILDING DURING EARTHQUAKES:_-

The behavior of building during earthquakes depends critically on its overall shape, size and
geometry. Hence, at planning stage itself, architects and structural engineers must work
together to ensure that the unfavorable features are avoided and a good building
configuration is chosen. If both shape and structural system work together to make the
structure a marvel.
 SIZE OF BUILDINGS
 HORIZONTAL LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS
 VERTICAL LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS
 ADJACENCY OF BUILDINGS
 SIZE OF BUILDINGS

In tall buildings with large weight-to-base size ratio , the horizontal movement of the floors during ground shaking is
large.
In short but very long buildings, the damaging effects during earthquake shaking are many.
In buildings with large plan area, the horizontal seismic forces can be excessive to be carried by columns and walls.

HORIZONTAL LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS

Buildings with simple geometry in plan perform well during strong earthquakes.
The bad effects of the interior corners in the plan of buildings are avoided by making the buildings in two parts by
using a separation joint at the junction.

VERTICAL LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS

Earthquake forces at the level of discontinuity. Buildings that have fewer columns or walls in a particular storey or
with unusually tall storey tend to damage or collapse which is initiated in that storey.
Buildings on sloppy ground have unequal height columns along the slope, which causes twisting and damage in
shorter columns that hang or float on beams have discontinuity in load transfer.
Buildings in which RCC walls do not go all the way to the ground but stop at upper levels get severely damaged.
ADJACENCY OF BUILDINGS

When two buildings are close to each other, they may pound on each other during strong shaking. When
building heights do not match the roof of the shorter building may pound at the mid- height of the column
of the taller one; this can be very dangerous.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION
 • OPENINGS
• Openings in wall
• Appropriate openings
1. Openings in the wall are
necessary for providing doors
and windows.
2. But larger and number of
openings make the wall
weak. Therefore the number 1. Distance between an exterior
and size of openings should corner of the building and the
be limited. opening should not be less
3. The width of an opening than2 ft (600 mm).
should preferably not be 2. Gap between two openings:
more than 1.2m. Wall length between any two
openings (doors and/or
windows) should not be less
than 2 ft.
3. The sum of the width of
openings in a wall should not
exceed 50% of the total wall
length.
INAPPROPRIATE OPENINGS
ROOF CONSTRUCTION

 Heavy roof suffers greater seismic

forces and may result in severe
structural damage or collapse.

 Therefore house in an area prone to

earthquakes requires a light roof
which distributes its load evenly on
the walls.

 Projection also need to be

considered part of the wall's
protection and should neither be
less than 500 mm nor greater than
1m.
WALLS
 PLINTH BAND

 Plinth seismic band is provided at the

plinth level.

 Where a stone plinth or burnt brick

plinth is constructed, a reinforced
concrete plinth band may be used.

 In that case a separate damp proof

course will not be necessary.

 Plinth band is necessary in a building

that is resting on soft soil foundation.
 Foundations
Depth of foundation: The depth of
foundation below existing ground level
should be at least 3’-0” for soft soil.
For Rocky ground the depth of footing
may be reduced to about 1’-6”.
Types of foundations

STONE MASONRY FOUNDATION BRICK MASONRY FOUNDATION CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY

FOUNDATION
FORM OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANCE:-
• MASONRY :-
 Masonry can carry loads that cause compression (i.e. pressing together) but can hardly take load that causes
tension (i.e. pulling apart).
 Masonry is a brittle material, these walls develop cracks once their ability to carry horizontal load is
exceeded.
• Thus infill walls act like sacrificial fuses in buildings: ----They develop cracks under severe ground shaking
but they share the load of the beams and columns until cracking.

 CONCRETE :-
• Concrete is much stronger than masonry under compressive loads, but again its behavior in tension is poor.
• The properties of concrete critically depend on the amount of water used in making concrete, too much and
too little water both can cause havoc or destruction .

 STEEL:-
 Steel is used in masonry and concrete buildings as reinforcement bars of diameter ranging from 6mm to
40mm.
 Reinforcing steel can carry both tensile and compressive loads. Moreover steel is a ductile material. This
important property of ductility enables steel bars to undergo large elongation before breaking..
 The amount and location of steel in a member should be such that the failure of the member is by steel
reaching its strength in tension before concrete reaches its strength in compression.
 This type of failure is ductile failure, and is preferred over a failure where concrete fails first in
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compression. Therefore, Providing more steel in R.C. buildings can be harmful even!!
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS
• Brick masonry buildings have large mass and hence attract
large horizontal forces during earthquake shaking.
• They develop numerous cracks under both compressive and
tensile forces caused by earthquake shaking.
• Appropriate choice of structural configuration can help to
achieve this.
• The structural configuration of masonry buildings includes
aspects like:-
(a) overall shape and size of the building.
(b) distribution of mass and (horizontal) lateral load
resisting elements across the building.
• Large, tall, long and unsymmetrical buildings perform poorly
during the earthquakes .

A strategy used in making them earthquake resistant is

developing good box action between all the elements of the
building, i.e., between roof, walls and foundation loosely
connected roof Or unduly slender walls are threats to good
seismic behaviour. For example, a horizontal band
introduced at the lintel level ties the walls together and helps
to make them behave as a single unit.
 SOLUTIONS FOR BUILDING NEAR SLOPE
Retaining wall
Retaining walls can be used to solve problems of limited right
of way and confine ground slopes within practical limits and to
stabilize steep cut and embankment slopes .
The retaining walls may be constructed using reinforced
concrete, brick masonry or stone masonry.

configuration of building suitable for such a seismic

zone in hilly area is shown below:
Recommended:
1. One floor construction
2. Roughly squared room
3. Symmetric distribution of Walls
4. Small openings
5. Use of plaster
 SELECTION OF
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE
SYSTEM

Evolution of structural systems

Structural Systems
• Moment resisting frame systems
• Braced frame, shear wall systems
• Core and outrigger systems
• Tubular systems
– Framed tubes Structural Loads
– Trussed tubes
– Bundled tubes
• Hybrid systems
A clear classification of high-rise buildings with respect to their structural system is difficult
A rough classification can be made with respect to effectiveness in resisting lateral loads
 Shear Frame System

• Resists lateral deformation by joint rotation

• Requires high bending stiffness of columns and
beams
• Rigid joints are essential for stability
• Not effective for heights over 30 stories

Braced Frame System

Lateral forces are resisted by axial actions of bracing and

columns
Steel bracing members or filled-in bays More efficient
than a rigid frame

Core Structure System

Lateral and gravity loads supported by central core

• Eliminates columns and bracing elements
• Core is inefficient because it is not deep in respect
to bending
• Moment supported floors are inefficient
Outrigger Braced Structure System Tubular Structure System
Majority of structural elements around the
• 1- or 2-story deep truss connects core to perimeter Sides normal to lateral load resist
perimeter columns bending Sides parallel to lateral load resist shear
• Increases the bending rigidity Minimize number of interior columns Closely
• Dependent of rigid core for shear resistance spaced exterior columns

High Efficiency Mega Braced System

Very large columns and bracing
• Small number of columns
• Bracing extends over multiple floors
• Stiff transfer floors allow for internal flexiblity
 MEASURES FOR MAKING BUILDINGS EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
Modern Technology used to design and construct buildings and bridges to help withstand earthquakes-
 Base Isolation Method

Since the bearings have a curved

surface, the building slides both
horizontally and vertically
• .BASE ISOLATORS– act as shock absorbers during an earthquake. Absorb seismic waves,
preventing them from traveling through the building.
• The concept of base isolation is explained through an example building resting on frictionless
rollers.
• When the ground shakes, the rollers freely roll, but the building above does not move. Thus, no
force is transferred to the building due to the shaking of the ground; simply, the building does not
experience the earthquake.
•The base of the building is isolated with the help of rubber pad bearings.

•In the above pictures it can be noticed that even after the earthquake the buildings retain their
rectangular shape because of base isolation method.
EXAMPLE OF BASE ISOLATION TECHNOLOGY

MOTOAZABU HILLS FOREST TOWER,

JAPAN

used base-isolation technologies to maximize their

effectiveness.

The rubber dampers were developed specifically for

use in constructing earthquake-resistant high-rise
buildings and substantially increases the earthquake
damage resistance of the structures in which it is used.
Energy Dissipation Devices
Mass Damper –
A weight placed in the roof of a building. Motion sensors detect
building movement during an earthquake and send messages to a
computer. The computer signals controls in the roof to shift the
mass damper to counteract the building’s movement.

Commonly Used Seismic

Dampers
MASS DAMPER
•Viscous Dampers (energy is
absorbed by silicone-based
fluid passing between piston
cylinder arrangement),
• Friction Dampers (energy
is absorbed by surfaces
with friction between them
rubbing against each
other),
• Yielding Dampers
MASS DAMPER TOWER
(energy is absorbed by
metallic components that
yield).
 Cross Braces
are placed between floors and they counteract pressure that pushes and
pulls at the side of a building during an earthquake

Flexible Pipes

they help prevent water and gas

lines from breaking. They
are better able to twist and
bend without breaking
during an earthquake.

Small Seismic Platform

Scheme

Wall of a seismic construction

Seismic platform building
blocks on small seismic platform
 CASESTUDY-1

Earthquake of September 19, 1985,

Mexico City

Diagram of four common patterns

of failure for severely damaged
buildings. Main causes of
building loss included:
Corner building failure (42%),
Collapse of intermediate floors
(40%),
Collapse of upper floors (38%),
Pounding (one building
repeatedly striking another during
earthquake vibrations) (15%), and
Foundation failure (13%).

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 Top-Floor Failure of
Flexible Building Between
Two Ridge Buildings This
flexible commercial
building was in a vice-like
clamp between two rigid
neighboring buildings.
This pressure caused the
upper part of the building
to collapse at the level of
neighboring structures'
roofs.
Earthquake Oscillations Cause Collapse of Vertical Supports
The severe building oscillations deprived vertical supports of their load-
bearing capacity despite strong steel reinforcements. Note the absence
of reinforcement cross ties in vertical columns.

Mid-Floor Failure of Reinforced Concrete Building, Mexico

City Mid-floor failure of the Hotel de Carlo caused by pounding
(repeated striking) from the building on the left. Note deflection of
the building on the right. Construction is concrete frame. Here two
buildings of similar height were built too closely together. The natural
period of the buildings was close to the period of the earthquake,
causing lateral displacements large enough to allow them to hammer
each other.
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 Aerial View of Top
Failure, Central
Communications
Center- The twelve-
story reinforced
concrete structure

Totally Collapsed 21-Story High-Rise Building

Steel Frame Office Building Twisted in Earthquake

Since it was inadequately stiffened, this high-rise building

twisted excessively in the earthquake, forming the typical X-
shaped cracks. An earthquake subjects the various
components of a building to shear, bending, compression,
and torsional forces. X-cracking is evidence that the
earthquake
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energy has been dissipated in the shear walls.
Failure of Top Floors, Hotel Continental,
Mexico City

Top failure of the Hotel Continental (constructed in 1950). Top

floors of buildings are particularly vulnerable during
earthquakes; they are displaced more than ground level floors.
The resonance frequencies of the buildings coincide with the
ground vibrations leading to large amplification of oscillations.
Such displacements often culminate in a whip-like effect. Also,
upper floors often have smaller and weaker load-bearing
components. The length of this earthquake event gave time
for development of torsional vibrations due to asymmetric
distribution of masses and elasticity in the high-rise buildings.

Collapsed Floors Punctured by Load-Bearing

Column
In this building as in many others, the load-bearing column
forced through the concrete floors as they collapsed around it.
Severe resonance oscillations of the buildings caused strain at
the juncture between columns and ceiling slabs; the concrete
structure was destroyed and the steel reinforcements were
strained until they failed. The vertical columns were either
compressed or (as in this picture) punched through the heavy
floors that collapsed around them.
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CASESTUDY-2
GUJRAT-26 JAN 2001
Adobe buildings in Ludiya village, which withstood the earthquake of Gujarat All other
buildings, with stones or concrete blocks are fallen apart

Bad bonds and no “through stones”

DEFECTS DUE TO
EARTHQUAKE

Typical shear crack in a pier Shear crack in filler wall

Crack due to bending &

Shear crack shear Overturning of parapet wall
 Failure due to shear & bending
A photograph shows the Failure of Brick
Structure

Failure due to collapse of walls or columns

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