Petroleum Geology & Geophysics

Common Midpoint Velocity Flattened

Gather Semblance Gather

FWSchroeder 1
 Outline

• Introduction to Processing

• Basics of a Stacked Seismic Section

• Pre-Stack Processing Steps

• Seismic Migration

FWSchroeder 2
 Processing Objectives

Obtain an accurate, interpretable subsurface image

 Seismic data acquisition and

seismic data processing work
together to produce the best
earth image.
 Ideally, processed seismic data
should represent the true earth
response. In practice, the
processed data will only be an
approximation.
Subsurface ‘Image’
 The image to the right shows a
well processed, interpretable
subsurface image.

FWSchroeder 3
 Seismic Processing - Basics

Data Processing
Stream

Field Record
(marine)
Subsurface ‘Image’
FWSchroeder 4
 Processing Challenge

Estimate and remove the effects of non-geologic

signals, without impacting the amplitude and
phase of the primary reflections.

If we understand how waves propagate, can we

develop and apply corrections to generate a
more accurate image of the subsurface?

FWSchroeder 5
 Elements of Good Processing

1. Accurate Geometry
reflection travel times free
from distortion for true trap
definition
2. Compact Wavelets
correct reflection amplitude Good Processing
and pulse shape for reservoir
lithology and fluid property
prediction
3. Reduced Noise
good signal to noise for
mapping reflections of
interest
Great Processing
FWSchroeder 6
 Generic Processing Flow

Processing generally proceeds in several stages

• Signal – steps to:
Signal Processing

• Control and shape the wavelet.

• Preserve the relationship of amplitude to the RCs.
• Improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
• Imaging
Imaging – steps to:
• Focus the subsurface image.
• Correct for positioning errors.
• Signal Processing– steps involving:
SignalProcessing

• Application of pre- and post-stack enhancements.

FWSchroeder 7
 Generic Processing Flow (post-stack migration)

Front End /Geometry

Amplitude/Phase Control Signal

Processing
Noise Mitigation

* Stack

Velocity Analysis
Imaging
Migration

Post-Migration Processing
Signal
Processing
Post-Stack Processing

FWSchroeder 8
 Generic Processing Flow (pre-stack migration)

Front End /Geometry

Amplitude/Phase Control Signal

Processing
Noise Mitigation

Velocity Analysis
Imaging
Migration

Post-Migration Processing

Signal
* Stack
Processing

Post-Stack Processing

FWSchroeder 9
 Developing a Stacked Section

• To establish some basics, we’ll begin our discussion

with the process called stacking.
• Other processing steps precede stacking, which we
will cover later in the lecture.
• A review of stacking lays a good foundation for our
other discussions about seismic processing.
• Stacking = summing appropriate traces to enhance
the geologic signal and reduce the random noise.

FWSchroeder 10
 Repeated Measurements

The seismic method is plagued with noise – both

random noise and coherent (systematic) noise.
To reduce random noise, we get repeated
measurements for each individual subsurface point.
We discussed fold and how we
get repeated measurements
in the acquisition lecture.

We can get four (4) independent

measures of the geology in the
red box by using a series of
different shot points and
receiver locations

FWSchroeder 11
 A Marine Shot Record
Shot Record
Source Receivers
Direct Arrival Offset (Distance)
S1
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

1
Direct Arrival

Two-Way Travel Time

2
Reflections
3

A shot record shows all the traces (with

different offsets) for a single shot Reflection 3
This is what we collect in the field during
acquisition

FWSchroeder 12
 A CMP Gather
For Point A
Sources Receivers
A CMP Gather
S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

1
CMP = common mid point
2

In processing, we sort the shot-receiver pairs

so that data from the same ‘bounce’ point 3
is captured.
This gives us a CMP gather.
Offset Distance

FWSchroeder 13
 CMP Gather

CMP Gather
Travel times differ with offset since
the path for a near offset trace
is less than the path for a far
offset trace.

With the correct velocity, we can

correct for the difference in
travel time for each trace.

The curvature of this hyperbola is a

function of the average velocity
down to the depth of the reflector
Offset Distance

FWSchroeder 14
 With Correct Velocity, the Gather is Flattened

CMP Gather
Velocity
Too Slow
Curves
Down

Velocity
Correct
Flat

Velocity
Too Fast Curves
Up
Offset Distance

FWSchroeder 15
 A Stacked Trace
CMP Gather Moveout Corrected Stacked
Midpoint Gather Trace We stack several
offset traces
(# traces = fold)

The geologic
‘signal’ will be
additive

The random
‘noise’ will cancel

Stacking greatly
improves SNR
(signal-to-noise)
Offset Distance
10 Fold
FWSchroeder 16
 How the Full Stack is Created
S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
A full stack trace is composed of many
traces recorded with different reflection
Depth

angles but with a common subsurface

reflection point.
This gives us
CMP Gather NMO Correction Mute Applied ONE trace
Stacked
Section

FWSchroeder 17
 Full Stack – Characteristics

• Summation (stacking) decreases random noise and

increases signal.
• Often the best dataset for structural interpretation.
• Cleanest dataset to interpret in areas with low SNR.
• Summation (stacking) of all angles (near to far)
angles will decrease the overall bandwidth.
• May not be the best dataset for stratigraphic detail.
• May not be the best dataset to investigate DHIs.

DHI = Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator

FWSchroeder 18
 Partial Stacks

• Traces within a specific angle range of a CMP gather are

summed to make angle stacks
– e.g. as near, mid, and fars
A

25°

20°

Note that with increasing depth, the emergent

angle is limited by the offset of the acquisition

• Nature of seismic acquisition results in offset limited data

FWSchroeder 19
 Angle Stacks – How They are Created

Raypaths – Identical Angle Contours of Reflection Angle

80
575
655
60 80
50

10
75
70 80
45 65
35 0 75
20 4

15
55 60 70
30
1000 65
50
25 70

5
60
45
Constant Angle
55

2000

40
60 65
Contours

35

50
70

3000

55
30
Two way Time (ms)

10

20
45 65

15
25 60
40 50
4000 35
45
30

5
40

5000 25 35
20

Nears 10
15
Mids Fars 30

6000
25
20
Far
A velocity model must 7000 Near
stack
be available to create stack 15

5
mutes
these contours mutes
8000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Offset (m)

FWSchroeder 20
 Near and Far Angle Stacks
NMO corrected CMP Gather

Near Angle Far Mute Far Angle

Mute Mute

Near Mute

FWSchroeder 21
 Pre-Stack Processing

• There are a number of processing steps that are

done before stacking.
• These are done to:
– Correct for amplitude loss with depth (time).
– Correct for elevation changes for land acquisition.
– Minimize the effect of the wavelet (deconvolution).
– Determine the optimum velocity function for stacking.

FWSchroeder 22
 Amplitude Loss with Time

Spherical Divergence
Energy varies as 1/radius2
• Loss of energy through or 1/time2
time/depth/distance
traveled.
• Energy decays by the
inverse square of the
distance traveled.

Since we know how signal strength

is lost by geometric spreading
from the surface source location,
we are able to apply a correction
factor.

FWSchroeder 23
 Amplitude Loss with Time

Transmission Loss
Energy is partitioned at each
acoustic interface.
N=1
• At a reflecting interface, normal
incidence energy is converted
N=2
into two waves:
– reflected P waves, and N=3

– transmitted P waves.
N=4
• The incident energy at layer N
has been reduced by all of the
overlying reflected energy.
2 2
Amplitude varies as T
Total = R N (1 - R N - 1 ) (1 - R N - 2 ) … (1 - R 21 )

FWSchroeder 24
 Amplitude Loss with Time

Absorption Attenuation
Q = 50, F = 5 Hz
• Seismic energy is converted to
heat.
• This is frequency dependent.
• The higher the frequency, the
greater the loss of signal.
• Absorption is referred to as Q.
Attenuation
• Q varies by rock type. Q = 50, F = 50 Hz

Amplitude varies as Ao e-X/Q

FWSchroeder 25
FWSchroeder 26
FWSchroeder 27
 Gain Compensation

Automatic Gain Control Programmed Gain Control

Original Original
Trace Trace

15 sample
AGC applied PGC
applied

Gain Gain
Function Function

Boosting signal strength to a Controlling signal strength to

preset level over a specified preserve proportionality with
time interval bedding reflectivity

FWSchroeder 28
 Elevation Correction

Statics
• Source and receivers may be Shot Layout
Variable Surface Elevations
located at different surface Source
Receivers
elevations. R
R R
R
R R
R Receivers
R
• Travel time to any reflector (a
R

flat one in the figure) will

vary as the length of the
travel path changes.
• This effect must be removed Gathers are not flat after Moveout
from the data if the traces Correction due to Elevation Artifacts

are to be successfully Time

Origin

flattened and then stacked.

Distorted Hyperbolas

FWSchroeder 29
 Elevation Correction

Seismic Reference Datum

• After applying this time shift, Shot Layout
Variable Surface Elevations
the data appears as if it has Source

all been recorded on the Receivers

R
R
R
R R
R Receivers
R
seismic reference datum. Seismic Reference Datum

• This is referred to as a static

shift.
• All the samples for each
individual trace are moved Shot Record:
by the same amount. Corrected Moveout Curve
Time
Origin

‘Clean’ Hyperbolas

FWSchroeder 30
 Static Correction

A time
correction was
applied to
datum traces
to a common
reference
elevation.

Distorted Hyperbolas ‘Cleaner’ Hyperbolas

FWSchroeder 31
 Datum Plain
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FWSchroeder 38
 Trace Muting

Removing
shallow
portions of
traces that are
dominated by
direct arrivals
and refractions.

FWSchroeder 39
 Seismic Trace

FWSchroeder 40
FWSchroeder 41
FWSchroeder 42
 Removing the Wavelet Shape

Deconvolution
Wavelet shaping to improve recognition and resolution of
reflected events.

Ringing

FWSchroeder 43
 Surface-related multip
Multiple Removal reflection at

Multiples: Seismic energy that

Surface-related multip
has been reflected more than
once.
Surface-related multiples have at least one
reflection at
reflection at the surface
Water Second-order
Bottom
First-order Multiple
Surface-related
Multiple removal steps are often
applied several times, especially S R S R

in areas with strong multiples. Source-side

pegleg
lated multiples First-order have
Second-order
 A “peel the onion” approach.
First-order Second-order First-order
Surface-related
SubsurfaceSecond-order
Multiple
eflection Surface-related at the surf
Receiver-side
Surface-related
pegleg
 Pre-Stack and Post-Stack S R Surface-related
S R
migrationS steps.R S R
Source-side
Source-side pegleg
pegleg

Second-order Receiver-side
First-order
Receiver-side Peg-leg Multiple
pegleg
-related pegleg Surfa
FWSchroeder
Surface-related 44
 Velocity Analysis

Reflections on a Velocity Semblance

CMP Stack Diagram

Used to determine the

velocity function that best
flattens the gathers

Two-Way Time
Values that
indicate the
degree of
‘flatness’

Velocity
FWSchroeder 45
 Velocity Segregation of Multiples
Semblance Gather

Muted

Energy from Energy from

Multiples Multiples

FWSchroeder 46
 Normal Moveout (NMO) Corrected Gather

About
400 fold

Energy from
Multiples • What happens to the energy
from multiples when traces
are stacked?
• What is the difference in
multiple removal for near vs.
far angle stacks?

FWSchroeder 47
 Normal Moveout (NMO) Corrected Gather

About
400 fold

Energy from
Multiples

The gently dipping The strongly dipping multiple

multiple will not be will be canceled by destructive
canceled during stacking interference during stacking

FWSchroeder 48
 Multiple Removal

Approach:
• Marine: technique is determined by water depth
 Deep water – velocity separation (Radon)
 Shallow Water - deconvolution

• Land: uses velocity separation (Radon)

and/or deconvolution

Radon In “velocity space” the

multiples can be
recognized and filtered
out
FWSchroeder 49
 Radon Applied to Remove Multiples
Before Radon After Radon

Conflicting dip due to Multiples effectively

primaries and multiples removed with Radon

FWSchroeder 50
 Pre-Stack Processing

• There are other advanced processing steps that can

be done before stack.
• These additional pre-stack processes are beyond the
scope of this class.
• They are quite expensive is terms of money, time and
resources.
• We will move on to the principle imaging technique –
migration.

FWSchroeder 51
 Non-Layer Cake Geology

• Thus far my diagrams, by intention, have had nearly

horizontal layering.
• Things get more complicated with dipping strata.
• The ‘bounce’ point is not simply the midpoint.

Midpoint

Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

FWSchroeder 52
 Positioning Problems
Energy
Source
 
True Path

Posted
Position

0.4 s -

The reflection is displayed

The seismic ray hits an inclined beneath the source-
surface at 90º and reflects back receiver midpoint

FWSchroeder 53
 Where Would the Reflection Lie?

1 2 3 4 5 6

     

90º

FWSchroeder 54
 Where Would the Reflection Lie?

1 2 3 4 5 6

     

Compass

Where would the reflection lie?

FWSchroeder 55
 Where Would the Reflection Lie?

1 2 3 4 5 6

     

Where would the reflection lie?

FWSchroeder 56
 Where Would the Reflection Lie?

1 2 3 4 5 6

     

The reflection is positioned downdip

and has less dip than the interface

FWSchroeder 57
 Imaging – Correcting the Position

• Unless we do something, we get a distorted image of

the subsurface.
• Dipping reflectors will be out of position.
• Fortunately, our data processors have a solution.
• They can correct this mispositioning problem through

FWSchroeder 58
 Unmigrated Impulse Response

Migrating the Stacked Image

Time
This energy (peak/ trough) The shape of this arc is
could have come from controlled by the
anywhere along this arc. velocity field.

Unmigrated Image

FWSchroeder 59
 Sweeping Arcs for Three Wavelets

Migrating the Stacked Image

Time
Destructive
Interference

Constructive
We get constructive Interference
interference where the
true reflector is located.

Unmigrated Image

FWSchroeder 60
 When Many Arcs are Swept

Migrating the Stacked Image

Time
Poststack Migration
Sweeps Out Arcs
(Kirchoff Summation)

FWSchroeder 61
 Seismic Migration

Migrating the Stacked Image

Time
Unmigrated
Image
In Red

Reflection
Surface

Migrated
Time Display Image
Location
In Blue

FWSchroeder 62
 Seismic Migration

Red lines mark the unmigrated

position of two reflections

FWSchroeder 63
 Seismic Migration

Migration noise

Red lines mark the unmigrated

position of two reflectors

Edge effect from

the model
Migrated Model

FWSchroeder 64
 Stacked – Unmigrated Line

Reflections are not properly located in the subsurface

It is difficult to interpret the structure

FWSchroeder 65
 Stacked – Migrated Line

Reflections are mare accurately located in the subsurface

Now a thrust fault can be interpreted

FWSchroeder 66
 Migration Options

• There are many methods/algorithms for seismic

migration.
• Each has advantages and disadvantages as we go
from simple, quick methods to more rigorous,
expensive methods.
• “You get what you are willing to pay for”

Post-Stack Pre-Stack Pre-Stack

Time Time Depth
$ $$$$ $$$$ $$$$
Good to Poor Great to Fair Excellent to
Imaging Imaging Good Imaging

FWSchroeder 67
 Migration Types
Which type of migration to use is based on velocity variability,
geologic complexity, timing, budget, and business need
Highly Variable

Prestack Depth
With multi-path
Velocity Variation

Beam WEM RTM

Prestack Depth
Kirchhoff

Prestack Time
Kirchhoff WEM = Wave Equation Migration
RTM = Reverse Time Migration

Post-stack Time

Very smooth
Layer Highly
cake
Geologic Complexity Structured
FWSchroeder 68
 Migration Velocity Considerations
Smooth => much longer than spread length Time migration
Moderate => close to seismic spread length
Depth migration
Extreme => less than a seismic spread length

Seismic Spread
Length

Sloping Water Bottom

Simple Salt (smooth to moderate)
(smooth - moderate)
Faults
(moderate to extreme)
Complex Salt
(moderate-extreme)

FWSchroeder 69
 When is Time Migration Preferred?

• Turn around time is critical.

• No velocity control (wells, VSPs or check shots)
• Business phase
– Exploration – mostly uses time migration
• Discovery wells usually aim for the middle of the target
• “If it’s so small we can’t hit it with this data, it’s too small”
– Development – may be able to get by
• Depth migration is better
• One side-track will pay for a depth migration project
– Production – depth migration should be used
in almost every case

FWSchroeder 70
 When is Depth Migration a Must?

• Positioning Accuracy is Paramount, e.g. in the

Production stage
• Strong Lateral Velocity Changes, e.g. irregular
salt bodies
• Severe Anisotropy (>5%) – velocity varies by
direction, e.g. fractured reservoirs

Always remember to budget enough

Time and Money!

FWSchroeder 71
 Land vs. Marine Seismic Data

Marine Data Land Data

• Same wavelet for each shot • Variable wavelet

• Simple geometry • Complex geometry
• Long lines • Short lines
• Large volume of data • Small volume
• Only need horizontal locations • Need vertical locations
• No statics • Static problems

FWSchroeder 72
FWSchroeder 73