Failure Modes

Ductility and Percent Elongation

• Ductility is the degree to which a material
will deform before ultimate fracture.
• Percent elongation is used as a measure
of ductility.
• Ductile Materials have %E  5%
• Brittle Materials have %E < 5%
• For machine members subject to repeated
or shock or impact loads, materials with
%E > 12% are recommended.
Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and
energy absorption (toughness) before fracture

Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low energy

absorption before failure
 DUCTILE VS BRITTLE FAILURE
• Classification:

(a) (b) (c)

• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is warning before No
desirable! fracture warning
 DUCTILE FAILURE
• Evolution to failure:

“cup and cone” fracture

• Resulting
fracture
surfaces
(steel)

50 µm
particles serve as void
nucleation sites.
1 µm = 1 X 10-6 m = 0.001 mm
 Failure Prediction Methods
Static Loads
• Brittle Materials - FT:
– Maximum Normal Stress - Uniaxial stress
– Modified Mohr - Biaxial stress

• Ductile Materials - FT:

– Yield Strength - Uniaxial stress
– Maximum Shear Strength - Biaxial stress
– Distortion Energy - Biaxial or Triaxial
 Predictions of Failure
Fluctuating Loads
• Brittle Materials:
– Not recommended

• Ductile Materials:
– Goodman
– Gerber
– Soderberg
 Maximum Normal Stress
•Uniaxial Static Loads on Brittle Material:
Static
Brittle Material
Load

–In tension:
ANALYSIS:
DESIGN:
Sut Sut
 max  K t   d  N
N  max
–In compression:
ANALYSIS:
DESIGN:
Suc Sut
 max  K t   d  N
N  max
 Modified Mohr Method
• Biaxial Static Stress on Brittle Materials
2
45° Shear Diagonal Sut
2 1
Suc Sut
1 Stress concentrations
applied to stresses before
1, 2 making the circle

Brittle materials often have a

much larger compressive
strength than tensile strength
Failure when outside of shaded area
Suc
 Yield Strength Method
• Uniaxial Static Stress on Ductile Materials
Static
Ductile Material
Load

– In tension:
ANALYSIS:

DESIGN: S yt S yt
 max   d  N
N
 max
–In compression: ANALYSIS:
DESIGN:
S yc S yc
 max   d  N
N
 max
For most ductile materials, Syt = Syc
 Maximum Shear Stress
• Biaxial Static Stress on Ductile Materials
avg, max
DESIGN:
Sy s Sy
max  d  
N 2N
ANALYSIS:
S ys
N
 max
Ductile materials begin to yield when the maximum shear stress in a load-carrying
component exceeds that in a tensile-test specimen when yielding begins.
Somewhat conservative approach – use the Distortion Energy Method
for a more precise failure estimate
 Distortion Energy
• Static Biaxial or Triaxial Stress on Ductile Materials
Shear
Diagonal 2 Best predictor of failure for
Sy ductile materials under static
loads or under completely
reversed normal, shear or
combined stresses.
Sy
Sy
1 '  12   22  12
’ = von Mises stress
Failure: ’ > Sy
Sy Design: ’  d = Sy/N
N  Sy/’
Distortion Energy ANALYSIS:
 von Mises Stress
• Alternate Form

'   2x   2y   x  y  3 2xy

For uniaxial stress when y = 0, '    3

2
x
2
xy

• Triaxial Distortion Energy (1 > 2 > 3)

 2
'    ( 2  1 )  (3  1 )  (3   2 )
2 2 2
 2 
 
Comparison of Static Failure
Theories:
Shows “no failure” zones

Maximum Shear – most conservative

Summary Static Failure Theories:
• Brittle materials fail on planes of max
normal stress:
– Max Normal Stress Theory
– Modified Mohr Theory
• Ductile materials fail on planes of max
shear stress:
– Max shear stress theory
– Distortion energy theory
• See summary table!
• Do example problems for static loading!
 Brittle failure or ductile failure? Key: is the fracture surface
on a plane of max shear or max normal stress.

TORQUE:

DUCTILE BRITTLE
 AXIAL

Brittle Ductile
 Goodman Method
Good predictor of failure in ductile materials
experiencing fluctuating stress
a
Sn’ = actual endurance
strength Yield Line
a = alternating stress Sy
m = mean stress FATIGUE
Sn’
FAILURE REGION

Goodman Line
a m
NO FATIGUE  1
FAILURE REGION Sn S u

m
-Sy 0 Sy Su
 Goodman Diagram
Sn’ = actual endurance strength
Safe Stress Line a a = alternating stress
m = mean stress
K t a m 1
  Yield Line
Sn Su N Sy
FATIGUE
Sn’
FAILURE REGION

Goodman Line
Sn’/N a m
 1
Sn S u
SAFE ZONE
m
-Sy 0 Su/N Sy Su
Safe Stress Line
Actual Endurance Strength
Sn’ = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)

Sn’ = actual endurance strength (ESTIMATE)

Sn = endurance strength from Fig. 5-8
Cm = material factor (pg. 174)
Cst = stress type: 1.0 for bending
0.8 for axial tension
0.577 for shear
CR = reliability factor
CS = size factor
 Actual Sn Example
• Find the endurance strength for a valve stem
made of AISI 4340 OQT 900°F steel.

From Fig. A4-5.

Su = 190 ksi

62 ksi
From Fig. 5-8.
Sn = 62 ksi
(machined)
 Actual Sn Example Continued

Sn’ = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 62 ksi(1.0)(.8)(.81)(.94) = 37.8 ksi
Sn,Table 5-8
Wrought Steel
Actual Sn’
Axial Tension Estimate
Reliability, Table 5-1

99% Probability Size Factor, Fig. 5-9

Sn’ is at or above the Guessing: diameter  .5”
calculated value
 Example: Problem 5-53.
Find a suitable titanium alloy. N = 3
1.5 mm Radius

42 mm DIA 30 mm
DIA

F varies from 20 to 30.3 kN

+
MAX = 30.3
30 .3  20
alt   5.15 kN
FORCE

2
30 .3  20
MIN = 20 mean   25 .15 kN
2
- TIME
Example: Problem 5-53 continued.
• Find the mean stress:
25,150 N
m   35.6 MPa

(30 mm )2
4
• Find the alternating stress:
5,150 N
a   7.3 MPa

(30 mm )2
4
• Stress concentration from App. A15-1:
D 42 mm r 1.5 mm
  1.4;   .05  K t  2.3
d 30 mm d 30 mm
Example: Problem 5-53 continued.
• Sn data not available for titanium so we will guess!
Assume Sn = Su/4 for extra safety factor.
• TRY T2-65A, Su = 448 MPa, Sy = 379 MPa

K t a m 1
  (Eqn 5-20)
Sn Su N
2.3(7.3 MPa) 35 .6 MPa 1
   .297
.8(. 86 )( 448 MPa / 4) 448 MPa N
Size 1
Tension Reliability 50% N  3.36
.297
3.36 is good, need further information on Sn for titanium.
 Example:
Find a suitable steel for N = 3 & 90% reliable.
3 mm Radius

50 mm DIA
30 mm
DIA

T varies from 848 N-m to 1272 N-m

+
MAX = 1272 N-m
1272  848
TORQUE

alt   212 N  m
2
1272  848
MIN = 848 N-m mean   1060 N  m
2
- TIME
T = 1060 ± 212 N-m
Example: continued.
• Stress concentration from App. A15-1:
D 50 mm r 3 mm
  1.667;   .1  K t  1.38
d 30 mm d 30 mm

• Find the mean shear stress:

Tm 1060 N  m(1000 mm )
m   m
 200 MPa
Zp 
(30 mm)3
16

• Find the alternating shear stress:

Ta 212000 N  mm
a   3
 40 MPa
Zp 5301 mm
Example: continued.
• So,  = 200 ± 40 MPa. Guess a material.
TRY: AISI 1040 OQT 400°F
Su = 779 MPa, Sy = 600 MPa, %E = 19%
Ductile
• Verify that max  Sys:
max = 200 + 40 = 240 MPa  Sys  600/2 = 300MPa

• Find the ultimate shear stress:

Sus = .75Su = .75(779 MPa) = 584 MPa
Example: continued.
• Assume machined surface, Sn  295 MPa
(Fig. 5-8)

• Find actual endurance strength:

S’sn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 295 MPa(1.0)(.577)(.9)(.86) = 132 MPa

Sn Size – 30 mm
Wrought steel 90% Reliability
Shear Stress
Example: continued.
K t a m 1
• Goodman:   (Eqn. 5-28)
Ssn S su N
1.38( 40 MPa) 200 MPa 1
   .7606
132 MPa 584 MPa N
1
N  1.31
.7606
No Good!!! We wanted N  3
Need a material with Su about 3 times bigger than this
guess or/and a better surface finish on the part.
Example: continued.
• Guess another material.
TRY: AISI 1340 OQT 700°F
Su = 1520 MPa, Sy = 1360 MPa, %E = 10%
Ductile
• Find the ultimate shear stress:
Sus = .75Su = .75(779 MPa) = 584 MPa

• Find actual endurance strength:

S’sn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 610 MPa(1.0)(.577)(.9)(.86) = 272 MPa
Sn shear size
wrought reliable
Example: continued.
K t a m 1
• Goodman:   (Eqn. 5-28)
Ssn S su N
1.38( 40 MPa) 200 MPa 1
   .378
272 MPa 1140 MPa N
1
N  2.64
.378
No Good!!! We wanted N  3
Decision Point:
• Accept 2.64 as close enough to 3.0?
• Go to polished surface?
• Change dimensions? Material? (Can’t do much better in
steel since Sn does not improve much for Su > 1500 MPa
 Example: Combined Stress Fatigue

RBE
2/11/97
 Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
PIPE: TS4 x .237 WALL
MATERIAL: ASTM A242
Equivalent
DEAD WEIGHT:
Reversed,
Repeated SIGN + ARM + POST = 1000#
(Compression)

45°

Bending

RBE
2/11/97 Repeated one direction
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Stress Analysis:
Dead Weight:
P 1000 #
  2
 315 .5 psi (Static)
A 3.17 in

Vertical from Wind:

P 200 #
  2
 63 .09 psi (Cyclic)
A 3.17 in

Bending:
M 500 # (60 in)
  3
 9345 .8 psi (Static)
Z 3.21 in
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Stress Analysis:
Torsion:
T 200 # (100 in)
  3
 3115 .3 psi (Cyclic)
ZP 2(3.21 in )

Stress Elements: (Viewed from +y)

STATIC: 315.5 psi CYCLIC: 63.09 psi – Repeated
9345.8 psi One Direction

z z
 = 3115.3 psi
x x Fully Reversed
 Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Mean Stress: Alternating Stress:
+
TIME
9345.8 Static

Stress
-315.5 m
-31.5 Repeated / 2
- MIN = -63.09 psi
8998.8 psi a  (CW)
max
 (CW) max (0,-3115.3)


1 

(-31.5,-3115.3)
8998 .8 psi
max   4499 .4 psi max  3115 .34 psi
2
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Determine Strength:
Try for N = 3  some uncertainty
Size Factor? OD = 4.50 in, Wall thickness = .237 in
ID = 4.50” – 2(.237”) = 4.026 in
Max. stress at OD. The stress declines to 95% at
95% of the OD = .95(4.50”) = 4.275 in. Therefore,
amount of steel at or above 95% stress is the same
as in 4.50” solid.
ASTM A242: Su = 70 ksi, Sy = 50 ksi, %E = 21%
t  3/4” Ductile
 Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
We must use Ssu and S’sn since this is a combined
stress situation. (Case I1, page 197)

Sus = .75Su = .75(70 ksi) = 52.5 ksi

S’sn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 23 ksi(1.0)(.577)(.9)(.745) = 8.9 ksi
Hot Rolled
Surface Size – 4.50” dia
Wrought steel 90% Reliability
Combined or Shear Stress
 Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
“Safe” Line for Goodman Diagram:
a = S’sn / N = 8.9 ksi / 3 = 2.97 ksi
m = Ssu / N = 52.5 ksi / 3 = 17.5 ksi
K t a m 1
 
Ssn S su N
10
1.0(3115 .3 psi) 4499 .4 psi 1
Alternating Stress, a

S’sn    .426
8900 psi 52500 psi N
1
N  2.29
.426

5 Su
3115.3 Ktalt
S’sn/N

0
0 5 10 15 Su/N 20
mean = 4499.4 Mean Stress, m
 Design Factors, N
(a.k.a. Factor of Safety)
FOR DUCTILE
MATERIALS:

•N = 1.25 to 2.0 Static loading, high level of confidence in all design

data
•N = 2.0 to 2.5 Dynamic loading, average confidence in all design
data
•N = 2.5 to 4.0 Static or dynamic with uncertainty about loads,
material properties, complex stress state, etc…
•N = 4.0 or higher Above + desire to provide extra safety
Failure When Use? Failure When: Design Stress:
Theory:
1. Maximum Brittle Material/ Uniaxial  max  Kt   Sut (for tensi on)  d  Sut / N (for tensi on)
Normal Stress Static Stress  max  Kt   Suc (for compressio n)  d  Suc / N (for compressio n)

2. Yield Strength Ductile Material/  max  Syt (for tensi on)  d  Syt / N (for tensi on)
(Basis for MCH T Uniaxial Static Normal  max  Syc (for compressio n)  d  Syc / N (for compressio n)
213) Stress
Note : Syt  Syc for ductile/wr ought material
3. Maximum Shear Ductile Material/ Bi-  max  Sys where Sys  Sy/2  d  Sys / N where Sys  Sy/2
Stress (Basis for axial Static Stress
MCH T 213)

4. Distortion Energy Ductile Material/ Bi-  '   12   22   1 2  Sy  'd  Sy / N

(von Mises) axial Static Stress where  '  von Mises stress see Figure 5 - 13

5. Goodman Ductile Material/ K t a  m 1

K t a  m  
Method Fluctuating Normal  1 S n' Su N
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S n' Su
see Figure 5.15

Failure Theories Kfor

Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Shear Stress

 STATIC

1 where Loading
t a
'
m K t a  m
'
 
1
where
S sn S su S sn S su N
(Fatigue Loading)
S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su
or
Ductile Material/
Uniaxial: K t ( a ) max ( m ) max
Bi-axial: K t ( a ) max ( m ) max
Fluctuating Combined  1 whe re  1 whe re
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S sn' S su S sn' S su
S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su
Failure When Use? Failure When: Design Stress:
Theory:
1. Maximum Brittle Material/ Uniaxial  max  Kt   Sut (for tensi on)  d  Sut / N (for tensi on)
Normal Stress Static Stress  max  Kt   Suc (for compressio n)  d  Suc / N (for compressio n)

2. Yield Strength Ductile Material/  max  Syt (for tensi on)  d  Syt / N (for tensi on)
(Basis for MCH T Uniaxial Static Normal  max  Syc (for compressio n)  d  Syc / N (for compressio n)
Stress
213)
Failure TheoriesNotefor
: Syt FATIGUE Loading
Syc for ductile/wr ought material
3. Maximum Shear Ductile Material/ Bi-  max  Sys where Sys  Sy/2  d  Sys / N where Sys  Sy/2
Stress (Basis for axial Static Stress
MCH T 213)

4. Distortion Energy Ductile Material/ Bi-  '   12   22   1 2  Sy  'd  Sy / N

(von Mises) axial Static Stress where  '  von Mises stress see Figure 5 - 13

5. Goodman a. Ductile Material/ K t a  m 1

K t a  m  
Method Fluctuating Normal  1 S n' Su N
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S n' Su
see Figure 5.15
b. Ductile Material/ K t a  m K t a  m 1
Fluctuating Shear Stress  1 where   where
S sn' S su '
S sn S su N
(Fatigue Loading)
S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su

c. Ductile Material/
K t ( a ) max ( m ) max K t ( a ) max ( m ) max
Fluctuating Combined  1 whe re  1 whe re
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S sn' S su S sn' S su
S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su
Failure When Use? Failure When: Design Stress:
Theory:
1. Maximum Brittle Material/ Uniaxial  max  Kt   Sut (for tensi on)  d  Sut / N (for tensi on)
Normal Stress Static Stress  max  Kt   Suc (for compressio n)  d  Suc / N (for compressio n)

2. Yield Strength Ductile Material/  max  Syt (for tensi on)  d  Syt / N (for tensi on)
(Basis for MCH T Uniaxial Static Normal  max  Syc (for compressio n)  d  Syc / N (for compressio n)
213) Stress
Note : Syt  Syc for ductile/wr ought material
3. Maximum Shear Ductile Material/ Bi-  max  Sys where Sys  Sy/2  d  Sys / N where Sys  Sy/2
Stress (Basis for axial Static Stress
MCH T 213)

4. Distortion Energy Ductile Material/ Bi-  '   12   22   1 2  Sy  'd  Sy / N

(von Mises) axial Static Stress where  '  von Mises stress see Figure 5 - 13

5. Goodman a. Ductile Material/ K t a  m 1

K t a  m  
Method Fluctuating Normal  1 S n' Su N
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S n' Su
see Figure 5.15
b. Ductile Material/ K t a  m K t a  m 1
Fluctuating Shear Stress  1 where   where
S sn' S su '
S sn S su N
(Fatigue Loading)
S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su

c. Ductile Material/
K t ( a ) max ( m ) max K t ( a ) max ( m ) max
Fluctuating Combined  1 whe re  1 whe re
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S sn' S su S sn' S su
S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su S sn'  0.577 S n' and S su  0.75Su
 General Comments:

1. Failure theory to use depends on material (ductile vs. brittle) and type of loading (static or
dynamic). Note, ductile if elongation > 5%.
2. Ductile material static loads – ok to neglect Kt (stress concentrations)
3. Brittle material static loads – must use Kt
4. Terminology:
• Su (or Sut) = ultimate strength in tension
• Suc = ultimate strength in compression
• Sy = yield strength in tension
• Sys = 0.5*Sy = yield strength in shear
• Sus = 0.75*Su = ultimate strength in shear
• Sn = endurance strength = 0.5*Su or get from Fig 5-8 or S-N curve
• S’n = estimated actual endurance strength = Sn(Cm) (Cst) (CR) (Cs)

• S’sn = 0.577* S’n = estimated actual endurance strength in shear

5.9 What Failure Theory to Use: