Introduction

Computer
Networking: A
Top Down
Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith
Ross
Addison-Wesley

1-1
Roadma
p what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1-2
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
PC  millions mobile network
of connected
server computing devices:
 hosts = end systems global ISP
wireless
laptop  running network apps
smartphone
home
 communication links network
regional ISP
wireless
 fiber, copper,
links radio, satellite
wired
links
 transmission
rate: bandwidth

 Packet switches:
router forward packets institutional
network
(chunks of data)
 routers and switches
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What’ s the Internet: “ nuts and bolts” view

mobile network
 Internet: “network of
networks” global ISP
 Interconnected ISPs
 protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs home
network
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, regional ISP
802.3
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force

institutional
network

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What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather
 “I have a question” than humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
governed by
… specific msgs sent protocols
… specific actions
taken when msgs protocols define format,
received, or other order of msgs sent and
events received among
network entities, and
actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
1-5
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

1-6
Roadma
p what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1-7
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock -  1972:
queueing theory  ARPAnet public demo
shows effectiveness  NCP (Network Control
of packet-switching
Protocol) first host-host
 1964: Baran - protocol
packet-switching in  first e-mail program
military nets
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
 1967: ARPAnet
conceived by
Advanced Research
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

1-8
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s
 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internetworking
architecture for principles:
interconnecting networks  minimalism, autonomy - no
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC internal changes required
to interconnect networks
 late70’s: proprietary
 best effort service model
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA  stateless routers
 decentralized control
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM define today’s Internet
precursor) architecture
 1979: ARPAnet has 200
nodes

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Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

 1983: deployment of  new national

TCP/IP networks: Csnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail BITnet, NSFnet,
protocol defined Minitel
 1983: DNS defined  100,000 hosts
for name-to-IP- connected to
address translation confederation of
 1985: ftp protocol networks
defined
 1988: TCP
congestion control

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Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps

 early 1990’ s: ARPAnet late 1990’s – 2000’s:

decommissioned  more killer apps:
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
instant messaging,
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995) P2P file sharing
 early 1990s: Web  network security to
 hypertext [Bush 1945, forefront
Nelson 1960’ s]  est. 50 million host,
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee 100 million+ users
 1994: Mosaic, later  backbone links
Netscape running at Gbps
 late 1990’ s:
commercialization of the
Web

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Internet history
2005-present
 ~750 million hosts
 Smartphones and tablets
 Aggressive deployment of broadband access
 Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless
access
 Emergence of online social networks:
 Facebook: soon one billion users
 Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create
their own networks
 Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneou
s” access to search, email, etc.

1-12
Roadma
p what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

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Internet “layers”
Networks are
complex,
with many “ pieces” :
 hosts Question:
 routers is there any hope of
 links of various organizing
media structure of
 applications network?
 protocols
 hardware,
software

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let us consider two friends who communicate through postal
mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post
office.

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Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance,
updating of system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

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Internet layered model (TCP/IP
Model)

 application: supporting
network applications application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process transport
data transfer
 TCP, UDP network
 network: routing of datagrams
from source to destination link
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
 Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”
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ISO/OSI reference
model
 presentation: allow
applications to interpret
meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, presentation
machine-specific conventions
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of transport
data exchange
 Internet stack “ missing” network
these layers! link
 these services, if needed, must
be implemented in application physical
 needed?

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TCP/IP and OSI model

1-19
 source Encapsulatio
message
segment Ht
M
M
application
transport
n
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

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A private internet

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 Communication at the physical layer

Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

01
1.
..
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

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 Communication at the data link layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame

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 Communication at the network layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram

1-24
 Communication at transport layer
A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment

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 Communication at application layer
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
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Different Addresses

Four levels of addresses are used in an

internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical address, logical address, port
address, and application-specific address.
Each address is related to a one layer in the
TCP/IP architecture.

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Different Addresses

 Physical Addresses
 Logical Addresses
 Port Addresses
 Application-Specific Addresses

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Addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite

1-29
Roadma
p what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1-30
A closer look at network
structure:
 network edge: mobile network
 hosts: clients and servers
 servers often in data centers global ISP

home
 access networks, network
regional ISP
physical media: wired,
wireless
communication links

 network core:
 interconnected routers
 network of networks
institutional
network

1-31
Access networks and physical
media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge
router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks
 Examples: DSL, Cable
network etc.
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
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Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54  3G, 4G
Mbps transmission rate

to Internet

to Internet

1-33
Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver
pairs twisted pair (TP)
 physical link: what lies  two insulated copper
between transmitter & wires
receiver  Category 5: 100
 guided media: Mbps, 1 Gbps
Ethernet
 signals propagate in  Category 6: 10Gbps
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio

1-34
Physical media: coax, fiber

coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:

 glass fiber carrying light
 two concentric copper pulses, each pulse a bit
conductors  high-speed operation:
 bidirectional  high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
 broadband: Gpbs transmission rate)
 multiple channels on  low error rate:
cable  repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic
noise

1-35
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
 no physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 bidirectional  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 propagation  3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
environment effects:  satellite
 reflection  Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
 obstruction by multiple smaller channels)
objects
 interference

1-36
Roadma
p what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1-37
The network core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from
one router to the next,
across links on path
from source to
destination
 each packet transmitted
at full link capacity

1-38
Packet-switching: store-and-
forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to one-hop numerical

transmit (push out) L- example:
bit packet into link at R  L = 7.5 Mbits
bps  R = 1.5 Mbps
 store and forward:
 one-hop transmission
entire packet must
delay = 5 sec
arrive at router before
it can be
 end-end transmitted
delay = 2L/R
(assuming zero propagation
on next link
delay) 1-39
Packet Switching: queueing delay,
loss
R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate
of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills
up

1-40
Packet-switching: Cut-
Through

2-41
Alternative core: circuit
switching
end-end resources allocated
to, reserved for “call”
between source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link
and 1st circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no
sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not used
by call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

1-42
Internet structure: network of
networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to
each other
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe
current Internet structure

1-43
Internet structure: network of
networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

1-44
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly.

…
access access
…

net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… net
access access …
net access net
net

1-45
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

1-46
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

1-47
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors …. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

1-48
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets
to ISPS

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

1-49
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai ) may run
their own network, to bring services, content close to end users

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

1-50
Internet structure: network of
networks
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IX IX IX
P P P
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP
 at center: small # of well-connected large networks
 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network
that connects it’s data centers to Internet, often bypassing
tier-1, regional ISPs
1-51
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

1-52