Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 21
Protist Evolution and
Diversity
Lecture Outline
See separate FlexArt PowerPoint slides for
all figures and tables pre-inserted into
PowerPoint without notes.

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 Outline
21.1 General Biology of Protists
21.2 Supergroup Archaeplastida
21.3 Supergroup SAR
21.4 Supergroup Excavata
21.5 Supergroups Amoebozoa and
Opisthokonta

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 21.1 General Biology of Protists
Classified in the domain Eukarya and the
kingdom Protista
• The endosymbiotic hypothesis
• Aerobic bacteria became mitochondria.
• Cyanobacteria became chloroplasts.
• Vary in size from microscopic algae and
protozoans to kelp more than 200 meter in length
• Although many protists are unicellular, they are
highly complex.
• Amoeboids and ciliates possess unique organelles,
such as contractile vacuoles.
• Some protists are colonial or filamentous.
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 General Biology of Protists (1)
Nutrition
• Some are photosynthetic.
• Many are heterotrophic.
• Some ingest food by endocytosis.
• Some are parasitic.

• Some are mixotrophic.

• Combine autotrophic and heterotrophic nutritional
modes

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 General Biology of Protists (2)
Life cycles:
• Asexual reproduction is common.
• Sexual reproduction may occur when
conditions are unfavorable.
• Formation of spores allows protists to survive
hostile environments.
• A cyst is a dormant cell with a resistant outer
covering which can survive until favorable
conditions return.
• In parasites, a cyst may serve as a means of transfer to a
new host.
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 General Biology of Protists (3)
Protists are of enormous ecological
importance.
Photoautotrophic forms:
• Produce oxygen
• Function as producers in both freshwater and
saltwater ecosystems
• Major component of plankton
• Organisms that are suspended in the water
• Serve as food for heterotrophic protists and animals
• Whales, the largest animal in the sea, feed on plankton,
one of the smallest.
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 General Biology of Protists (4)
Evolution and diversity of protists:
• Complexity and diversity of protists makes them
difficult to classify.
• Many classification schemes proposed.
• None has broad support.
• Cannot be classified as plants, animals, or fungi
• Not monophyletic
• Do not all belong to the same evolutionary lineage

• Classified into six supergroups

• Taxonomic group below domain and above kingdom
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 Supergroups
Archaeplastida – red and green algae (also
includes land plants); they have plastids
SAR – stramenopiles, alveolates, rhizaria;
most have plastids
Excavata – zooflagellates, often with
distinctive oral grooves
Amoebozoa – protozoans move using
pseudopods
Opisthokonta – single-celled and multicellular
protists, including choanoflagellates (also
animals and fungi) 21-8
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 Protist Diversity
Table 21.1 Protist Diversity

Jump Protist Diversity Long

Description

(Volvox): ©Stephen Durr; (diatoms): ©M.I. Walker/Science Source: (radiolarians): ©Eye of Science/Science
Source: (Giardia) Source: CDC/Dr. Stan Eriandsen and Dr. Dennis Feely; (amoeba): ©iStockphoto/Getty RF;
(choanoflagellates): ©D. J. Patterson, provided courtesy microscope.mbl.edu 21-9
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 Evolutionary Relationships Between
the Eukaryotic Supergroups

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 21.2 Supergroup Archaeplastida
Includes land plants and other photosynthetic
organisms that have plastids derived from
endosymbiotic cyanobacteria
Green algae refers to many phyla of protists that carry
out photosynthesis.
• Green algae (approximately 8,000 species)
• Inhabit a variety of environments including oceans,
freshwater, snowbanks, tree bark, and turtles’ backs
• Many are symbionts with fungi, plants, or animals.
• Morphology varies
• The majority are unicellular, but many are filamentous or colonial.
• Some are multicellular and resemble leaves of lettuce.
• They may be orange, red, or red-colored.
• Subdivided into chlorophytes and charophytes
• Land plants are thought to be derived from charophytes.
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 Supergroup Archaeplastida (1)
Chlorophytes: Chlamydomonas
• A minute (< 25 micrometer), actively moving
chorophyte
• Inhabits still, freshwater pools
• Fossil ancestors date back over a billion years.
• Anatomy:
• Definite cell wall
• Single, large, cup-shaped chloroplast
• Chloroplast with a pyrenoid where starch is synthesized
• Many species have a bright red eyespot (pyrenoid).
• Light-sensitive
• Helps bring the organism to locations favorable for
phyotosynthesis
• Two long, whip-like flagella
• Project from the anterior end
• Operate with a breaststroke motion 21-12
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 Electron Micrograph of
Chlamydomonas

© Biophoto Associates/Science Source

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 Diversity of Protists (1)
Chlamydomonas:
• Most often reproduces asexually
• As many as 16 daughter cells within the parent cell wall
• Escape by digesting the parent cell wall
• Occasionally reproduces sexually
• Two haploid vegetative cells of different mating types fuse to
form a zygote.
• Becomes a heavy-walled, resistant zygospore
• Goes into a period of dormancy
• Upon germination produces four zoospores by meiosis
• “Spore,” a reproductive cell that develops into a new organism
without fusing with another cell
• “Zoospore,” flagellated spores, typical of aquatic species 21-14
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 Haploid Life Cycle of
Chlamydomonas

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 Supergroup Archaeplastida (2)
Volvox (a colonial chlorophyte)
• A colony is a loose association of independent cells.
• A Volvox colony:
• A hollow sphere
• Thousands of cells arranged in a single layer surrounding a
watery interior
• Each cell of a Volvox colony resembles Chlamydomonas cell.
• Flagella beat in a coordinated fashion.
• Some cells are specialized for reproduction.
• Each can divide asexually to form a new daughter colony within the
parental colony.
• The daughter colony leaves the parental colony by releasing an
enzyme that dissolves away a portion of the parental colony.
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 Volvox

(both): © Manfred Kage/Science Source

Jump to Volvox Long Description 21-17
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 Supergroup Archaeplastida (3)
Ulva (a multicellular chlorophyte)
• Multicellular green alga
• Commonly called sea lettuce
• Body is two cells thick and can be as much as a
meter long.
• Sexual cycle involves alternation of generations
• Similar to higher plants, except
• Both generations look exactly alike.

• The gametes all look the same.

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 Ulva

a. Ulva, lactuca

Alternation of generations
• Sporophyte is 2n generation.
• Meiosis produces spores.
• Gametophyte is n generation.

b. Alternation-of-generations life cycle

(a): ©Evelyn Jo Johnson

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 Supergroup Archaeplastida (4)
Charophytes: Spirogyra
• Filamentous green algae
• Filaments – end-to-end chains of cells
• Found in green masses on the surfaces of ponds
and streams
• Has ribbon-like, spiraled chloroplasts
• Sexual reproduction by conjugation:
• A temporary union during which the cells exchange genetic
material
• Two filaments line up parallel to each other.
• Cell contents of one filament move into the cells of the other
filament.
• Forms diploid zygospores
• In spring, undergo meiosis to produce new haploid filaments 21-20
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 Spirogyra

a. Cell anatomy b. Conjugation

© M.I. Walker/Science Source

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 Supergroup Archaeplastida (5)
Red algae
• Multicellular seaweeds
• Possess red and blue accessory pigments, which
transfer energy from absorbed light to the
photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll during
photosynthesis
• More than 7,000 species
• Live mostly in warmer seawater, some at depths
greater than 70 meter
• Economic Importance
• Agar – capsules for drugs, dental impressions, cosmetics,
culture medium, electrophoresis, food prep
• Carrageenan – an emulsifying agent used in the production
of chocolate and cosmetics
• The reddish-black wrappings around sushi rolls consist of
processed Porphyra blades. 21-22
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 Red Algae

© Steven P. Lynch

Jump to Red Algae Long Description 21-23

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 Chara

a. Chara, several individuals b. One individual

a: © Bob Gibbons/Alamy; b: © Kingsley Stern
Jump to Chara Long Description
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 21.3 Supergroup SAR
Stramenopiles, Alveolates, Rhizaria
Stramenopiles include brown algae, diatoms,
golden brown algae, and water molds.
Brown algae
• About 1,800 species
• Most live in colder ocean waters along rocky coasts.
• Multicellular
• Morphology:
• Some are small forms with simple filaments.
• Others are large multicellular forms that may exceed 200 meter
in length.
• Accessory pigments provide brown color.
• Excess food is stored as a carbohydrate called
laminarin. 21-25
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 Brown Algae

© D.P Wilson/Eric & David Hosking/Science Source

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 Supergroup SAR (1)
Multicellular forms of green, red, and brown
algae are called seaweeds.
• Laminaria (a kelp) and Fucus (rockweed) are
common intertidal seaweeds.
• Nereocystis and Macrocystis often form forest-
like thickets in deeper waters.
• Sargassum forms floating masses where other
organisms find shelter.
Harvested for food and fertilizer
Macrocystis is the source of algin, a thickener
for foods such as ice cream, sherbet, and
cream cheese.
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 Supergroup SAR (2)
Laminaria shows tissue differentiation.
• Transports organic nutrients in a tissue
resembling phloem
Life cycle
• Most brown algae have alternation of
generations.
• In some species of Fucus:
• Meiosis produces gametes instead of spores.
• The adult is always diploid, as in animals.
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 Supergroup SAR (3)
Diatoms are the most numerous unicellular
algae in the oceans.
• Reproduce sexually and asexually
• Significant portion of plankton are diatoms.
• Ornate silica shell
• Two valves, with the larger valve acting as a lid (like a
mint tin)
• Diatomaceous earth, made of the remains of
diatoms, is used as
• A filtering agent
• Soundproofing material
• A polishing abrasive
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 Diatoms
Dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax

a.Diatom, Cyclotella b.Dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax

a: © Dr. Ann Smith/Science Source; b: © Biophoto Associates/Science Source

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 Supergroup SAR (4)
Golden brown algae
• Have yellow-brown carotenoid accessory
pigments
• Unicellular or colonial
• Usually have two flagella with tubular hairs
• About 1,000 species
• Many, such as Ochromonas, are mixotrophs
• Can photosynthesize and phagocytose

• Contribute to freshwater and marine

phytoplankton 21-31
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 Ochromonas, a Golden Brown
Algae

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 Supergroup SAR (5)
Water molds
• Most live in the water; form furry growths when they
parasitize fishes or insects and decompose remains.
• Some live on land and parasitize insects and plants.
• Over 700 species described
• Most are saprotrophic.
• Responsible for the potato famine in Ireland in the
1840s and the mildew of grapes in France in the
1870s
• Filamentous body
• Cell walls composed largely of cellulose
• Life cycle
• Produce flagellated 2n zoospores
• Organism is diploid
• Meiosis produces gametes 21-33
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 Water Mold

© Noble Proctor/Science Source

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 Supergroup SAR (6)
Dinoflagellates
• More than 2,000 species of dinoflagellates
• Morphology:
• Single cell is usually bounded by protective
cellulose plates impregnated with silicates.
• Typically have two flagella
• One in a longitudinal groove with its distal end free

• The other lies in a transverse groove that encircles the

organism.
21-35
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 Supergroup SAR (7)
Dinoflagellates
• Symbiotic dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae are
found in corals.
• Dinoflagellates provide their host with organic nutrients.
• Corals provide wastes that fertilize the algae.
• Some lack chloroplasts and are parasitic.
• Alexandrium catanella may cause “red tide.”
• Produce a powerful neurotoxin that has caused massive
fish kills
• Consuming shellfish during outbreak can cause
respiratory paralysis
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 Dinoflagellate Bloom and Fish Kill

a: © Jeff Foott/Discovery Channel Images/Getty Images; b: © corpus Christi Caller-Times, Todd Yates/AP Images

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 Supergroup SAR (8)
Ciliates are among the most complex of the
protozoans.
• Hundreds of cilia beat in coordinated rhythm.
• Most cilia swallow food whole.
• They divide by transverse binary fission during
asexual reproduction.
• Two nuclei of differing types
• Micronucleus – Reproduction
• Macronucleus – Metabolism
• Sexual reproduction involves conjugation and
exchange of haploid nuclei.
• Ichthyophthirius is an ectoparasitic protozoan that
causes the fish disease “ick.”
21-38
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 Ciliates

a. Paramecium

b. During conjugation two paramecia first unite at oral areas c. Stentor

a: © Carolina Biological Supply/Phototake; b: © Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images; c: © Eric Grave/Science Source
21-39
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 Supergroup SAR (9)
Apicomplexans
• Non-motile obligate parasites
• Form spores
• Most serious parasitic disease of humans is malaria.
• Plasmodium spp.
• Infects 350 to 500 million people each year, of whom more than a
million die of the infection
• Transmitted by mosquito
• Toxoplasma gondii
• Causes toxoplasmosis
• Infects cats and humans
• Causes birth defects and mental retardation when pregnant women
are exposed 21-40
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 Supergroup SAR (10)
Rhizarians
• Are comprised of foraminiferans and the
radiolarians
• Both have a skeleton called a test
• The White Cliffs of Dover on the southern coast of
England are made of foraminiferan deposits.
• In the foraminiferans, the calcium carbonate test is
often multichambered.
• The pseudopods extend through openings in the test.
• In the radiolarians, the glassy silicon test is internal and
usually has a radial arrangement of spines.
• Organisms with fine, threadlike pseudopods
21-41
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 Life Cycle of Plasmodium vivax

1.In the gut of a female Anopheles

mosquito, gametes fuse, and the
zygote undergoes many divisions
to produce sporozoites, which
migrate to her salivary gland.

2.When the mosquito bites a human, the

sporozoites pass from the mosquito
salivary glands into the bloodstream
and then the liver of the host.

3.Asexual spores 6.Some merozoites

(merozoites) produced become gametocytes,
in liver cells enter the which enter the blood-
blood-stream and then stream. If taken up by
the red blood cells, a mosquito, they
where they feed as become gametes.
trophozoites.

4.When the red blood 5.Merozoites and

cells rupture, toxins pour into
merozoites invade the blood-
and reproduce stream when
asexually inside new the red blood
red blood cells. cells rupture.

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 Foraminiferans and Radiolarians

a. Foraminiferan, Globigerina, and the White Cliffs of Dover, England

b. Radiolarian tests
(a): (cliffs): ©Platsee/Shutterstock RF; (inset): ©NHPA/SuperStock; (b): ©Eye of Science/Science Source

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 21.4 Supergroup Excavata
The excavates have atypical or absent
mitochondria and distinctive flagella and/or deep
grooves.
Euglenids
• Small freshwater unicellular organisms
• Difficult to classify
• Have two flagella and an eyespot (shades a
photoreceptor)
• One flagellum is much longer than the other.
• Projects out of an anterior, vase-shaped invagination
• Called a tinsel flagellum because of hair-like projections
• Cell is bounded by flexible pellicle.
• Chloroplasts:
• Surrounded by three, rather than two, membranes
• A special region of the chloroplast, the pyrenoid, produces an
unusual type of carbohydrate called paramylon. 21-44
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 Euglena

21-45
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 Supergroup Excavata (1)
Parabasalids
• Unicellular, flagellated
• Endosymbionts of animals
• Lack mitochondria
• Rely on fermentation for ATP production
Well known for causing various diseases in
humans
• Trichomonas vaginalis
• Sexually transmitted protist
• Infects urogenital organs; a common cause of vaginitis
21-46
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 Supergroup Excavata (2)
Diplomonad
• Unicellular
• Endosymbionts of animals
• Lack mitochondria
• Rely on fermentation for ATP production
• Two nuclei and two sets of flagella

Well known for causing various diseases in humans

• Giardia lamblia
• Most common flagellate in the human digestive tract
• Causes severe diarrhea
• Cysts are transmitted in contaminated water.
• Beavers are important reservoir hosts.
21-47
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 Giardia lamblia

© Kallista Images/Getty Images

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 Supergroup Excavata (3)
Kinetoplastids
• Unicellular, flagellated
• Kinetoplast (large mass of DNA located in
mitochondria)
Well known for causing various diseases in
humans
• Trypanosoma cruzi
• Causes Chagas disease
• Trypanosoma brucei
• Causes African sleeping sickness
• Is transmitted by an insect vector, the tsetse fly
21-49
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 Trypanosoma brucei

© Eye of Science/Science Source

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 21.5 Supergroups Amoebozoa,
Opisthokonta
Amoebozoans are protozoans that move
by pseudopods.
• Pseudopods form when cytoplasm streams
forward in a particular direction.
• Amoeboids are protists that move and ingest
their food with pseudopods.
• Undergo phagocytosis for food
• Entamoeba histolytica – a parasite of the human
colon;
• Causes amoebic dysentery
• Can be fatal
21-51
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 Amoeba proteus

Jump to Amoeba proteus Long Description

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 Supergroups Amoebozoa,
Opisthokonta (1)
Plasmodial Slime Molds
• Body in the form of a plasmodium
• Diploid, multinucleated, cytoplasmic mass
• Enveloped by a slimy sheath
• Eventually produces sporangium, a reproductive
structure which produces spores
• An aggregate of sporangia is called a fruiting body.
Cellular Slime Mold
• Body in the form of individual amoeboid cells
• Later aggregate into a pseudoplasmodium, which
then forms sporangia and spores
• Important decomposers that feed on dead plant
material 21-53
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 Plasmodial
Slime Molds

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(left): © NHPA/SuperStock; (right): © NaturePL/SuperStock

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 Supergroups Amoebozoa,
Opisthokonta (2)
Opisthokonts
• This supergroup includes both unicellular and
multicellular protozoans.
• Choanoflagellates – animal-like protozoans that
are near relatives of sponges.
• Include unicellular as well as colonial forms

• Filter-feeders

• Beating of the flagellum creates a water current that flows

through the collar, where food particles are taken in by
phagocytosis.
21-55
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 Diversity of Protists (2)
Opisthokonts
• Nucleariids
• Opisthokonts with a rounded or slightly flattened
cell body and threadlike pseudopods called
filopodia
• Feed on algae or cyanobacteria
• Close fungal relatives based on molecular
similarities
• Lack the characteristic cell walls found in fungi

21-56
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 Colonial Choanoflagellates

a. Codonosiga b. Proterospongia

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 Nucleariid

© Dr. Sc. Yuuji Tsukii/Protist Information Server, URL: http://protist.I.hosei.ac.jp

21-58
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Appendix of Image Long
Descriptions
 Protist Diversity Long Description
The supergroup archaeplastids includes the green algae (such as Volvox), the red algae, and the
charophytes. Other members of archaeplastids include plants. Distinguishing features of
archaeplastids include the presence of plastids and single-celled, colonial, and multicellular forms. In
ecological roles, algae are primary producers for aquatic food webs. In human interactions,
archaeplastids are components of biofuels, food, and gelatin-like agar. The supergroup SAR stands for
stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizaria. Stramenopiles include brown algae, diatoms, golden brown
algae, and water molds. Alveolates include ciliates, apicomplexans, and dinoflagellates. Rhizaria
includes foraminferans and radiolarians, which produce a calcium carbonate shell. Stramenopiles can
be single-celled or multicellular, and most have plastids. Alveolates are single-celled, and structures
called alveoli support the plasma membrane. Rhizaria are single-celled with thin pseudopods, and
some have tests. Ecological roles of SAR protists include the support of diverse marine environments
by kelp forests and the support of coral growth by certain types of alveolates. In human interactions,
SAR have the following roles: they are found in fertilizers; some can cause toxic red tides, malaria, or
toxoplasmosis; and fossil rhizaria indicate oil deposits and provide an index for geological dating. The
supergroup excavates includes the euglenids, kinetoplastids, parabasalids, and diplomonads.
Excavates have a feeding groove, unique flagella, and single-celled form. Ecologically, excavates live
in the guts of terminates, where they assist in the breakdown of cellulose. Excavates are responsible
for some human diseases, including giardiasis, African sleeping sickness, and the S T D
trichomoniasis. The supergroup amoebozoans includes amoeboids, such as Amoeba proteus,
plasmodial slime molds, and cellular slime molds. Amoebozoans have pseudopods and are single-
celled. Some amoebozoans are important terrestrial decomposers. Other amoebozoans are
responsible for human diseases, such as dysentery, which is caused by Entamoeba histolytica, and
Naegleria fowleri, a brain-eating amoeba. Lastly, the opisthokonts supergroup contains
choanoflagellates and nucleariids. Choanoflagellates are single-celled, animal-like protists. Other
members of opisthokonts include animals and fungi. Opisthokonts are single-celled or colonial, and
some have flagella. Ecological, opisthokonts participate in aquatic carbon cycling by feeding on
aquatic bacteria and detritus. Their close relationship to animals allows insight into early animal
evolution.
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 Evolutionary Relationships Between the
Eukaryotic Supergroups Long Description
In the proposed phylogenetic tree of the eukaryotic super groups, a common eukaryotic ancestor gives
rise to four main branches that radiate from a common node. The first main branch splits and gives
rise to two supergroups: the Amoebozoans and the Opisthokonts. Opisthokonts contains two main
clades: one with the sister groups fungi and nucleariids, and one with the sister groups
choanoflagellates and animals. Amoebozoans also contains two main clades: one with the amoeboids,
and one with the sister groups plasmodial slime molds and cellular slime molds. The second main
branch leads to the supergroup Excavates, which exist as two clades: one containing the sister groups
kinetoplastids and euglenids, and the other containing the sister groups parabasalids and
diplomonads. The third main branch gives rise to the supergroup SAR, which includes three main
clades, the Rhizaria, the Alveolates, and the Stramenopiles. Rhizaria contains the sister groups
Radiolarians and Foraminferans. Alveolates contains two main clades: one containing the ciliates and
one with the sister groups dinoflagellates and apicomplexans. Stramenopiles includes two main
clades: one containing the water molds and one containing the sister groups brown algae, golden
brown algae, and diatoms. The fourth main branch leads to the supergroup Archaeplastids. The oldest
archaeplastid lineage gives rise to the red algae, and the next lineage gives rise to a clade that
contains the chlorophytes on one branch and the sister groups charophytes and land plants on
another branch.

Jump back to Evolutionary Relationships Between the Eukaryotic Supergroups

 Electron Micrograph of
Chlamydomonas Long Description
Electron micrograph of Chlamydomonas. Chlamydomonas is a microscopic, single-celled chlorophyte.

Jump back to Electron Micrograph of Chlamydomonas

 Haploid Life Cycle of Chlamydomonas
Long Description
Haploid life cycle of Chlamydomonas. Chlamydomonas reproduction is an example of the haploid life
cycle common to algae. During asexual reproduction, all structures are haploid; during sexual
reproduction, meiosis follows the zygospore stage, which is the only diploid part of the cycle.

Jump back to Haploid Life Cycle of Chlamydomonas

 Volvox Long Description
Volvox. Volvox is a colonial chlorophyte. The adult Volvox colony often contains daughter colonies,
which are asexually produced by special cells.

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 Ulva Long Description
Ulva.
a. Ulva is a multicellular chlorophyte known as sea lettuce. A single Ulva individual has a flat, leaflike
appearance.
b. Alternation-of-generations life cycle.

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 Spirogyra Long Description
Spirogyra.
a. Spirogyra is an unbranched charophyte in which each cell has a ribbonlike chloroplast.
b. During conjugation, the cell contents of one filament enter the cells of another filament. Zygote
formation follows.

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 Red Algae Long Description
Red algae. Red algae are multicellular seaweeds, represented by Rhodoglossum affine.

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 Chara Long Description
Chara is an example of a stonewort, a charophyte that shares a common ancestor with land plants.

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 Brown Algae Long Description
Laminaria and Fucus are seaweeds known as kelps. They live along rocky coasts of the north
temperate zone. The other brown algae featured, Nereocystis and Macrocystis, form spectacular
underwater “forests” at sea.

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 Diatoms Dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax
Long Description
Diatoms and dinoflagellates.
a. Diatoms are stramenopiles of various colors, but even so their chloroplasts contain a unique
golden brown pigment (fucoxanthin), in addition to chlorophylls a and
c. The beautiful pattern results from markings on the silica-embedded wall.
b. Dinoflagellates are alveolates, such as Gonyaulax, with cellulose plates.

Jump back to Diatoms Dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax

 Ochromonas, a Golden Brown Algae
Long Description
Ochromonas, a golden brown alga. Golden brown algae have a type of flagella that characterizes the
stramenopiles. The longer of the two flagella has rows of tubular hairs.

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 Water Mold Long Description
Saprolegnia, a water mold, feeding on a dead goldfish, is not a fungus.

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 Dinoflagellate Bloom and Fish Kill
Long Description
Dinoflagellate bloom and fish kill.
a. A dinoflagellate bloom, often called a red tide because of the color of the water, occurring in
southeastern Alaska.
b. Fish kills, such as this one on Padre Island, Texas, can be the result of a dinoflagellate bloom.

Jump back to Dinoflagellate Bloom and Fish Kill

 Ciliates Long Description
Ciliates. Ciliates are the most complex of the protists.
a. Structure of Paramecium, adjacent to an electron micrograph. Note the oral groove, the gullet, and
the anal pore.
b. A form of sexual reproduction called conjugation occurs periodically.
c. Stentor, a large, vase-shaped, freshwater ciliate.

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 Life Cycle of Plasmodium vivax Long
Description
Life cycle of Plasmodium vivax, a species that causes malaria. Asexual reproduction of this
apicomplexan occurs in humans, while sexual reproduction takes place within the Anopheles
mosquito.

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 Foraminiferans and Radiolarians Long
Description
Foraminiferans and radiolarians.
a. Pseudopods of a live foraminiferan project through holes in the calcium carbonate shell.
Fossilized shells were so numerous they became a large part of the White Cliffs of Dover when a
geological upheaval occurred.
b. Skeletal test of a radiolarian. In life, pseudopods extend outward through the openings of the
glassy silicon shell.

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 Euglena Long Description
Euglena.
a. In Euglena, a very long flagellum propels the body, which is enveloped by a flexible pellicle.
b. Micrograph of Euglena.

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 Giardia lamblia Long Description
This diplomonad adheres to any surface, including epithelial cells, by means of a sucking disk. Characteristic
markings can be seen after the disk detaches.

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 Trypanosoma brucei Long Description
Trypanosoma brucei.
a. Micrograph of Trypanosoma brucei, a causal agent of African sleeping sickness, among red blood
cells.
b. The drawing shows its general structure.

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 Amoeba proteus Long Description
This amoeboid is common in freshwater ponds. Bacteria and other microorganisms are digested in
food vacuoles, and contractile vacuoles rid the body of excess water.

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Plasmodial Slime Molds Long Description
The diploid adult forms sporangia during sexual reproduction, when conditions are unfavorable to
growth. Haploid spores germinate, releasing haploid amoeboid or flagellated cells that fuse.

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Colonial Choanoflagellates Long Description
Colonial choanoflagellates.
a. A Codonosiga colony can anchor itself with a slender stalk.
b. A Proterospongia colony is unattached.

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