The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
1
Brief Review of Reactive and Proactive protocols
A reactive routing protocol tries to find a route
from S to D only on-demand, i.e., when the route
is required, for example, DSR and AODV are
such protocols.
The main advantage of a reactive protocol is the
low overhead of control messages.
However, reactive protocols have higher latency
in discovering routes.
2#
Proactive Protocols
A proactive protocol maintains extensive routing
tables for the entire network. As a result, a route
is found as soon as it is requested.
The main advantage of a proactive protocol is its
low latency in discovering new routes.
However, proactive protocols generate a high
volume of control messages required for
updating local routing tables.
3#
A Combined Protocol
It is possible to exploit the good features of both
reactive and proactive protcols and the Zone
routing protocol does that.
The proactive part of the protocol is restricted to
a small neighbourhood of a node and the
reactive part is used for routing across the
network.
This reduces latency in route discovery and
reduces the number of control messages as
well.
4#
Routing Zones
Each node S in the network has a routing zone.
This is the proactive zone for S as S collects
information about its routing zone in the manner
of the DSDV protocol.
If the radius of the routing zone is k, each node
in the zone can be reached within k hops from S.
The minimum distance of a peripheral node
from S is k (the radius).
5#
A Routing Zone
K L
A
B I
G
S
C E
D
H
J
All nodes except L are in the routing zone of S with
radius 2.
6#
Nodes in a Routing Zone
The coverage of a node´s trasmitter is the set of
nodes in direct communication with the node.
These are also called neighbours.
In other words, the neighbours of a node are the
nodes which are one hop away.
For S, if the radius of the routing zone is k, the
zone includes all the nodes which are k-hops
away.
7#
Neighbour Discovery Protocol
Like other ad hoc routing protocols, each node
executes ZRP to know its current neighbours.
Each node transmits a hello message at regular
intervals to all nodes within its transmission
range.
If a node P does not receive a hello message
from a previously known neighbour Q, P
removes Q from its list of neighbours.
8#
Basic Strategy in ZRP
The routing in ZRP is divided into two parts
– Intrazone routing : First, the packet is sent within the
routing zone of the source node to reach the
peripheral nodes.
– Interzone routing : Then the packet is sent from the
peripheral nodes towards the destination node.
D
S
9#
Intrazone Routing
Each node collects information about all the
nodes in its routing zone proactively. This
strategy is similar to a proactive protocol like
DSDV.
Each node maintains a routing table for its
routing zone, so that it can find a route to any
node in the routing zone from this table.
10
#
Intrazone Routing
In the original ZRP proposal, intrazone routing is
done by maintaining a link state table at each
node.
Each node periodically broadcasts a message
similar to a hello message kwon as a zone
notification message.
Suppose the zone radius is k for k>1
11
#
Zone Notification Message
A hello message dies after one hop, i.e., after
reaching a node´s neighbours.
A zone notification mesage dies after k hops,
i.e., after reaching the node´s neighbours at a
distance of k hops.
Each node receiving this message decreases
the hop count of the message by 1 and forwards
the message to its neighbours.
12
#
Keeping Track of Nodes in a Routing Zone
The message is not forwarded any more when
the hop count is 0.
Each node P keeps track of its neighbour Q from
whom it received the message through an entry
in its link state table.
P can keep track of all the nodes in its routing
zone through its link state table.
13
#
ZRP: Example with
Zone Radius = K = 2
S performs route
discovery for D
B
S
A C
D
E
F
Denotes route request
14
#
ZRP: Example with K = 2
S performs route
discovery for D
B
S
A C
D
E
F
E knows route from E to D,
Denotes route reply so route request need not be
forwarded to D from E
15
#
ZRP: Example with K = 2
S performs route
discovery for D
B
S
A C
D
E
F
Denotes route taken by Data
16
#
Interzone Routing
The interzone routing discovers routes to the
destination reactively.
Consider a source (S) and a destination (D). If D
is within the routing zone of S, the routing is
completed in the intrazone routing phase.
Otherwise, S sends the packet to the peripheral
nodes of its zone through bordercasting.
17
#
Bordercasting
The bordercasting to peripheral nodes can be
done mainly in two ways :
– By maintaining a multicast tree for the peripheral
nodes. S is the root of this tree.
– Otherwise, S maintains complete routing table for its
zone and routes the packet to the peripheral nodes by
consulting this routing table.
18
#
Interzone Route Discovery
S sends a route request (RREQ) message to the
peripheral nodes of its zone through
bordercasting.
Each peripheral node P executes the same
algorithm.
– First, P checks whether the destination D is within its
routing zone and if so, sends the packet to D.
– Otherwise, P sends the packet to the peripheral
nodes of its routing zone through bordercasting.
19
#
An Example of Interzone Routing
S C
B
D H
20
#
Route Reply in Interzone Routing
If a node P finds that the destination D is within
its routing zone, P can initiate a route reply.
Each node appends its address to the RREQ
message during the route request phase. This is
similar to route request phase in DSR.
This accumulated address can be used to send
the route reply (RREP) back to the source node
S.
21
#
Route Reply in Interzone Routing
An alternative strategy is to keep forward and
backward links at every node´s routing table
similar to the AODV protocol. This helps in
keeping the packet size constant.
A RREQ usually results in more than one RREP
and ZRP keeps track of more than one path
between S and D. An alternative path is chosen
in case one path is broken.
22
#
Route Maintenance
When there is a broken link along an active path
between S and D, a local path repair procedure
is initiated.
A broken link is always within the routing zone of
some node.
B
A
23
#
Route Maintenance
Hence, repairing a broken link requires
establishing a new path between two nodes
within a routing zone.
The repair is done by the starting node of the
link (node A in the previous diagram) by sending
a route repair message to node B within its
routing zone.
This is like a RREQ message from A with B as
the destination.
24
#
How to Prevent Flooding of the Network
Interzone routing may generate many copies of
the same RREQ message if not directed
correctly.
The RREQ should be steered towards the
destination or towards previously unexplored
regions of the network.
Otherwise, the same RREQ message may reach
the same nodes many times, causing the
flooding of the network.
25
#
Routing Zones Overlap Heavily
Since each node has its own routing zone, the
routing zones of neighbouring nodes overlap
heavily.
Since each peripheral node of a zone forwards
the RREQ message, the message can reach the
same node multiple times without proper control.
Each node may forward the same RREQ
multiple times.
26
#
Guiding the Search in InterZone Routing
The search explores new regions of the network.
27
#
Query Forwarding and Termination Strategy
When a node P receives a RREQ message, P
records the message in its list of RREQ
messages that it has received.
If P receives the same RREQ more than once, it
does not forward the RREQ the second time
onwards.
Also P can keep track of passing RREQ
messages in several different ways.
28
#
Termination Strategies
In the promiscuous mode of operation according
to IEEE 802.11 standards, a node can overhear
passing traffic.
Also, a node may act as a routing node during
bordercasting in the intrazone routing phase.
Whenever P receives a RREQ message through
any of these means, it remembers which routing
zone the message is meant for.
29
#
Termination Strategies
Suppose P has a list of nodes A, B,C,...,N such
that the RREQ message has already arrived in
the routing zones of the nodes A, B, C, ...,N.
Now P receives a request to forward a RREQ
message from another node Q.
This may happen when P is a peripheral node
for the routing zone of Q.
30
#
Early Termination of Unnecessary RREQs
A Q
B
P
C
X
N
P receives a RREQ from Q since P is a peripheral node
for the routing zone of Q.
Pdoes not bordercast the RREQ to A,B,...,N but only to
X which is not in its list.
31
#
Evaluation of ZRP
When the radius of the routing zone is 1, the
behaviour of ZRP is like a pure reactive protocol,
for example, like DSR.
When the radius of the routing zone is infinity (or
the diameter of the network), ZRP behaves like
a pure proactive protocol, for example, like
DSDV.
The optimal zone radius depends on node
mobility and route query rates.
32
#
Control Traffic
Control traffic generated by a protocol is the
number of overhead packets generated due to
route discovery requests.
In ZRP, control traffic is generated due to
interzone and intrazone routing.
Hello messages transmitted for neighbour
discovery are not considered as control traffic
since mobility has no effect on it.
33
#
Control Traffic for Intrazone Routing
In the intrazone routing, each node needs to
construct the bordercast tree for its zone.
With a zone radius of r, this requires complete
exchange of information over a distance of 2r-1
hops.
For unbounded networks with a uniform
2
distribution of nodes, this results in O( r )
intrazone control traffic.
34
#
Control Traffic for Intrazone Routing
However, for a bounded network, the
2
dependence is lower than r .
There is no intrazone control traffic when r=1.
The intrazone control traffic grows fast in
practice with increase in zone radius. So, it is
important to keep the zone radius small.
35
#
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
When the zone radius is 1, the control traffic is
maximum since ZRP degenerates into flood
search.
In other words, every RREQ message potentially
floods the entire network. This is due to the fact
that all the neighbours of a node n are its
peripheral nodes.
However, control traffic drops considerably even
if the zone radius is just 2.
36
#
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
The control traffic can be reduced drastically
with early query termination, when a RREQ
message is prevented from going to the same
region of the network multiple times.
However, the amount of control traffic depends
both on node mobility and query rate.
The performance of ZRP is measured by
compairing control traffic with call-to-mobility
(CMR) ratio.
37
#
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
The call-to-mobility ratio (CMR) is the ratio of
route query rate to node speed.
As CMR increases, the number of control
messages is reduced by increasing the radius of
the routing zones.
This is because, it is easier to maintain larger
routing zones if mobility is low. Hence, route
discovery traffic also reduces.
38
#
Control Traffic for Interzone Routing
On the other hand, CMR is low if mobility is high.
In such a case, the routing zone maintenance
becomes very costly and smaller routing zones
are better for reducing control traffic.
An optimally configured ZRP for a CMR of 500
[query/km] produces 70% less traffic than flood
searching.
39
#
Route Query Response Time
For a fixed CMR, the route query response time
decreases initially with increased zone radius.
However, after a certain radius, the response
time increases with zone radius.
This is due to the fact that the network takes
longer time to settle even with small changes in
large routing zones.
40
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