Sorting Algorithms

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 Sorting
• Sorting is a process that organizes a collection of data into either ascending or
descending order.
• An internal sort requires that the collection of data fit entirely in the
computer’s main memory.
• We can use an external sort when the collection of data cannot fit in the
computer’s main memory all at once but must reside in secondary storage such
as on a disk.
• We will analyze only internal sorting algorithms.
• Any significant amount of computer output is generally arranged in some
sorted order so that it can be interpreted.
• Sorting also has indirect uses. An initial sort of the data can significantly
enhance the performance of an algorithm.
• Majority of programming projects use a sort somewhere, and in many cases,
the sorting cost determines the running time.
• A comparison-based sorting algorithm makes ordering decisions only on the
basis of comparisons.

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 Sorting Algorithms
• There are many sorting algorithms, such as:
– Selection Sort
– Insertion Sort
– Bubble Sort
– Merge Sort
– Quick Sort

• The first three are the foundations for faster and more
efficient algorithms.

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 Selection Sort
• The list is divided into two sublists, sorted and unsorted, which
are divided by an imaginary wall.
• We find the smallest element from the unsorted sublist and
swap it with the element at the beginning of the unsorted
data.
• After each selection and swapping, the imaginary wall
between the two sublists move one element ahead, increasing
the number of sorted elements and decreasing the number of
unsorted ones.
• Each time we move one element from the unsorted sublist to
the sorted sublist, we say that we have completed a sort pass.
• A list of n elements requires n-1 passes to completely
rearrange the data.

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Sorted Unsorted
23 78 45 8 32 56 Original List

8 78 45 23 32 56 After pass 1

8 23 45 78 32 56 After pass 2

After pass 3
8 23 32 78 45 56

8 23 32 45 78 56 After pass 4

After pass 5
8 23 32 45 56 78
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 Selection Sort (cont.)
template <class Item>
void selectionSort( Item a[], int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n-1; i++) {
int min = i;
for (int j = i+1; j < n; j++)
if (a[j] < a[min]) min = j;
swap(a[i], a[min]);
}
}
template < class Object>
void swap( Object &lhs, Object &rhs )
{
Object tmp = lhs;
lhs = rhs;
rhs = tmp;
}

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 Selection Sort -- Analysis
• In general, we compare keys and move items (or exchange
items) in a sorting algorithm (which uses key comparisons).
 So, to analyze a sorting algorithm we should count the
number of key comparisons and the number of moves.
• Ignoring other operations does not affect our final result.

• In selectionSort function, the outer for loop executes n-1

times.
• We invoke swap function once at each iteration.
 Total Swaps: n-1
 Total Moves: 3*(n-1) (Each swap has three moves)

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 Selection Sort – Analysis (cont.)
• The inner for loop executes the size of the unsorted part minus 1
(from 1 to n-1), and in each iteration we make one key
comparison.
 # of key comparisons = 1+2+...+n-1 = n*(n-1)/2
 So, Selection sort is O(n2)
• The best case, the worst case, and the average case of the
selection sort algorithm are same.  all of them are O(n2)
– This means that the behavior of the selection sort algorithm does not depend on the
initial organization of data.
– Since O(n2) grows so rapidly, the selection sort algorithm is appropriate only for small
n.
– Although the selection sort algorithm requires O(n2) key comparisons, it only
requires O(n) moves.
– A selection sort could be a good choice if data moves are costly but key comparisons
are not costly (short keys, long records).

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 Comparison of N, logN and N2
N O(LogN) O(N2)
16 4 256
64 6 4K
256 8 64K
1,024 10 1M
16,384 14 256M
131,072 17 16G
262,144 18 6.87E+10
524,288 19 2.74E+11
1,048,576 20 1.09E+12
1,073,741,824 30 1.15E+18
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 Insertion Sort
• Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that is
appropriate for small inputs.
– Most common sorting technique used by card players.
• The list is divided into two parts: sorted and
unsorted.
• In each pass, the first element of the unsorted part is
picked up, transferred to the sorted sublist, and
inserted at the appropriate place.
• A list of n elements will take at most n-1 passes to
sort the data.

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Sorted Unsorted
23 78 45 8 32 56 Original List

23 78 45 8 32 56 After pass 1

23 45 78 8 32 56 After pass 2

After pass 3
8 23 45 78 32 56

8 23 32 45 78 56 After pass 4

After pass 5
8 23 32 45 56 78
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 Insertion Sort Algorithm
template <class Item>
void insertionSort(Item a[], int n)
{
for (int i = 1; i < n; i++)
{
Item tmp = a[i];

for (int j=i; j>0 && tmp < a[j-1]; j--)

a[j] = a[j-1];
a[j] = tmp;
}
}

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 Insertion Sort – Analysis
• Running time depends on not only the size of the array but also
the contents of the array.
• Best-case:  O(n)
– Array is already sorted in ascending order.
– Inner loop will not be executed.
– The number of moves: 2*(n-1)  O(n)
– The number of key comparisons: (n-1)  O(n)
• Worst-case:  O(n2)
– Array is in reverse order:
– Inner loop is executed i-1 times, for i = 2,3, …, n
– The number of moves: 2*(n-1)+(1+2+...+n-1)= 2*(n-1)+ n*(n-1)/2  O(n2)
– The number of key comparisons: (1+2+...+n-1)= n*(n-1)/2  O(n2)
• Average-case:  O(n2)
– We have to look at all possible initial data organizations.
• So, Insertion Sort is O(n2)
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 Analysis of insertion sort
• Which running time will be used to characterize this
algorithm?
– Best, worst or average?
• Worst:
– Longest running time (this is the upper limit for the algorithm)
– It is guaranteed that the algorithm will not be worse than this.
• Sometimes we are interested in average case. But there are
some problems with the average case.
– It is difficult to figure out the average case. i.e. what is average input?
– Are we going to assume all possible inputs are equally likely?
– In fact for most algorithms average case is same as the worst case.

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 Bubble Sort
• The list is divided into two sublists: sorted and
unsorted.
• The smallest element is bubbled from the unsorted
list and moved to the sorted sublist.
• After that, the wall moves one element ahead,
increasing the number of sorted elements and
decreasing the number of unsorted ones.
• Each time an element moves from the unsorted part
to the sorted part one sort pass is completed.
• Given a list of n elements, bubble sort requires up to
n-1 passes to sort the data.

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 Bubble Sort
23 78 45 8 32 56 Original List

After pass 1
8 23 78 45 32 56

After pass 2
8 23 32 78 45 56

After pass 3
8 23 32 45 78 56

After pass 4
8 23 32 45 56 78

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 Bubble Sort Algorithm
template <class Item>
void bubleSort(Item a[], int n)
{
bool sorted = false;
int last = n-1;

for (int i = 0; (i < last) && !sorted; i++){

sorted = true;
for (int j=last; j > i; j--)
if (a[j-1] > a[j]{
swap(a[j],a[j-1]);
sorted = false; // signal exchange
}
}
}

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 Bubble Sort – Analysis
• Best-case:  O(n)
– Array is already sorted in ascending order.
– The number of moves: 0  O(1)
– The number of key comparisons: (n-1)  O(n)
• Worst-case:  O(n2)
– Array is in reverse order:
– Outer loop is executed n-1 times,
– The number of moves: 3*(1+2+...+n-1) = 3 * n*(n-1)/2  O(n2)
– The number of key comparisons: (1+2+...+n-1)= n*(n-1)/2  O(n2)
• Average-case:  O(n2)
– We have to look at all possible initial data organizations.
• So, Bubble Sort is O(n2)
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 Mergesort
• Mergesort algorithm is one of two important divide-and-
conquer sorting algorithms (the other one is quicksort).
• It is a recursive algorithm.
– Divides the list into halves,
– Sort each halve separately, and
– Then merge the sorted halves into one sorted array.

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Mergesort - Example

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 Merge
const int MAX_SIZE = maximum-number-of-items-in-array;
void merge(DataType theArray[], int first, int mid, int last) {
DataType tempArray[MAX_SIZE]; // temporary array
int first1 = first; // beginning of first subarray
int last1 = mid; // end of first subarray
int first2 = mid + 1; // beginning of second subarray
int last2 = last; // end of second subarray
int index = first1; // next available location in tempArray
for ( ; (first1 <= last1) && (first2 <= last2); ++index) {
if (theArray[first1] < theArray[first2]) {
tempArray[index] = theArray[first1];
++first1;
}
else {
tempArray[index] = theArray[first2];
++first2;
} }

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 Merge (cont.)
// finish off the first subarray, if necessary
for (; first1 <= last1; ++first1, ++index)
tempArray[index] = theArray[first1];

// finish off the second subarray, if necessary

for (; first2 <= last2; ++first2, ++index)
tempArray[index] = theArray[first2];

// copy the result back into the original array

for (index = first; index <= last; ++index)
theArray[index] = tempArray[index];
} // end merge
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 Mergesort
void mergesort(DataType theArray[], int first, int last) {
if (first < last) {
int mid = (first + last)/2; // index of midpoint
mergesort(theArray, first, mid);
mergesort(theArray, mid+1, last);

// merge the two halves

merge(theArray, first, mid, last);
}
} // end mergesort

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 Mergesort - Example
6 3 9 1 5 4 7 2
divide
6 3 9 1 5 4 7 2
divide divide
6 3 9 1 5 4 7 2

divide divide divide divide

6 3 9 1 5 4 7 2
merge merge merge merge

3 6 1 9 4 5 2 7
merge merge

1 3 6 9 merge
2 4 5 7

1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9

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Mergesort – Example2

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A worst-case instance of the merge step in mergesort

Mergesort – Analysis of Merge

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Mergesort – Analysis of Merge
0
(cont.)
k-1 0 k-1
...... ......
Merging two sorted arrays of size k
0 2k-1
......
• Best-case:
– All the elements in the first array are smaller (or larger) than all the
elements in the second array.
– The number of moves: 2k + 2k
– The number of key comparisons: k
• Worst-case:
– The number of moves: 2k + 2k
– The number of key comparisons: 2k-1

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Levels of recursive calls to mergesort, given an array of eight items

Mergesort - Analysis

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 Mergesort - Analysis
2m level 0 : 1 merge (size 2m-1)
2m-1 2m-1
level 1 : 2 merges (size 2m-2)

level 2 : 4 merges (size 2m-3)

2m-2 2m-2 2m-2 2m-2
. .
. .
. .
level m-1 : 2m-1 merges (size 20)
20 20
................. level m

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 Mergesort - Analysis
• Worst-case –
The number of key comparisons:
= 20*(2*2m-1-1) + 21*(2*2m-2-1) + ... + 2m-1*(2*20-1)
= (2m - 1) + (2m - 2) + ... + (2m – 2m-1) ( m terms )
m 1

–
i
2
= m*2m i 0

= m*2m – 2m – 1
Using m = log n
= n * log2n – n – 1

 O (n * log2n )
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 Mergesort – Analysis
• Mergesort is extremely efficient algorithm with
respect to time.
– Both worst case and average cases are O (n * log2n )

• But, mergesort requires an extra array whose size

equals to the size of the original array.

• If we use a linked list, we do not need an extra array

– But, we need space for the links
– And, it will be difficult to divide the list into half ( O(n) )

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 Quicksort
• Like mergesort, Quicksort is also based on
the divide-and-conquer paradigm.
• But it uses this technique in a somewhat opposite manner,
as all the hard work is done before the recursive calls.
• It works as follows:
1. First, it partitions an array into two parts,
2. Then, it sorts the parts independently,
3. Finally, it combines the sorted subsequences by
a simple concatenation.

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 Quicksort (cont.)
The quick-sort algorithm consists of the following three steps:

1. Divide: Partition the list.

– To partition the list, we first choose some element from the
list for which we hope about half the elements will come
before and half after. Call this element the pivot.
– Then we partition the elements so that all those with values
less than the pivot come in one sublist and all those with
greater values come in another.
2. Recursion: Recursively sort the sublists separately.
3. Conquer: Put the sorted sublists together.

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• Partitioning places the pivot in its correct place position within the array.

Partition

• Arranging the array elements around the pivot p generates two smaller sorting
problems.
– sort the left section of the array, and sort the right section of the array.
– when these two smaller sorting problems are solved recursively, our
bigger sorting problem is solved.
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 Partition – Choosing the pivot
• First, we have to select a pivot element among the elements
of the given array, and we put this pivot into the first location
of the array before partitioning.
• Which array item should be selected as pivot?
– Somehow we have to select a pivot, and we hope that we
will get a good partitioning.
– If the items in the array arranged randomly, we choose a
pivot randomly.
– We can choose the first or last element as a pivot (it may
not give a good partitioning).
– We can use different techniques to select the pivot.
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 Partition Function
template <class DataType>
void partition(DataType theArray[], int first, int
last,
int &pivotIndex) {
// Partitions an array for quicksort.
// Precondition: first <= last.
// Postcondition: Partitions theArray[first..last] such that:
// S1 = theArray[first..pivotIndex-1] < pivot
// theArray[pivotIndex] == pivot
// S2 = theArray[pivotIndex+1..last] >= pivot
// Calls: choosePivot and swap.

// place pivot in theArray[first]

choosePivot(theArray, first, last);

DataType pivot = theArray[first]; // copy pivot

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 Partition Function (cont.)
// initially, everything but pivot is in unknown
int lastS1 = first; // index of last item in S1
int firstUnknown = first + 1; //index of 1st item in unknown
// move one item at a time until unknown region is empty
for (; firstUnknown <= last; ++firstUnknown) {
// Invariant: theArray[first+1..lastS1] < pivot
// theArray[lastS1+1..firstUnknown-1] >= pivot
// move item from unknown to proper region
if (theArray[firstUnknown] < pivot) { // belongs to
S1
++lastS1;
swap(theArray[firstUnknown], theArray[lastS1]);
} // else belongs to S2
}
// place pivot in proper position and mark its location
swap(theArray[first], theArray[lastS1]);
pivotIndex = lastS1;
} // end partition
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 Invariant for the partition algorithm

Partition Function (cont.)

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 Partition Function (cont.)

Initial state of the array

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 Partition Function (cont.)

Moving theArray[firstUnknown] into S1 by swapping it with

theArray[lastS1+1] and by incrementing both lastS1 and firstUnknown.

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 Partition Function (cont.)
Moving theArray[firstUnknown] into S2 by incrementing firstUnknown.

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 Partition Function (cont.)

Developing the first

partition of an array
when the pivot is the
first item

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 Quicksort Function
void quicksort(DataType theArray[], int first, int last) {
// Sorts the items in an array into ascending order.
// Precondition: theArray[first..last] is an array.
// Postcondition: theArray[first..last] is sorted.
// Calls: partition.
int pivotIndex;
if (first < last) {
// create the partition: S1, pivot, S2
partition(theArray, first, last, pivotIndex);
// sort regions S1 and S2
quicksort(theArray, first, pivotIndex-1);
quicksort(theArray, pivotIndex+1, last);
}
}

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 Quicksort – Analysis
Worst Case: (assume that we are selecting the first element as pivot)
– The pivot divides the list of size n into two sublists of sizes 0 and n-1.
– The number of key comparisons
= n-1 + n-2 + ... + 1
= n2/2 – n/2  O(n2)
– The number of swaps =
= n-1 + n-1 + n-2 + ... + 1

swaps outside of the for loop swaps inside of the for loop

= n2/2 + n/2 - 1  O(n2)

• So, Quicksort is O(n2) in worst case

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 Quicksort – Analysis
• Quicksort is O(n*log2n) in the best case and average case.
• Quicksort is slow when the array is sorted and we choose the
first element as the pivot.
• Although the worst case behavior is not so good, its average
case behavior is much better than its worst case.
– So, Quicksort is one of best sorting algorithms using key
comparisons.

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A worst-case partitioning with quicksort

Quicksort – Analysis

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An average-case partitioning with quicksort

Quicksort – Analysis

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 Radix Sort
• Radix sort algorithm different than other sorting algorithms
that we talked.
– It does not use key comparisons to sort an array.
• The radix sort :
– Treats each data item as a character string.
– First it groups data items according to their rightmost
character, and put these groups into order w.r.t. this
rightmost character.
– Then, combine these groups.
– We, repeat these grouping and combining operations for all
other character positions in the data items from the
rightmost to the leftmost character position.
– At the end, the sort operation will be completed.
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 Radix Sort – Example
mom, dad, god, fat, bad, cat, mad, pat, bar, him original list
(dad,god,bad,mad) (mom,him) (bar) (fat,cat,pat) group strings by
rightmost letter
dad,god,bad,mad,mom,him,bar,fat,cat,pat combine groups
(dad,bad,mad,bar,fat,cat,pat) (him) (god,mom) group strings by middle letter
dad,bad,mad,bar,fat,cat,pat,him,god,mom combine groups
(bad,bar) (cat) (dad) (fat) (god) (him) (mad,mom) (pat) group strings by first
letter

bad,bar,cat,dad,fat,god,him,mad,mom,par combine groups

(SORTED)

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Radix Sort – Example

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 Radix Sort - Algorithm
radixSort(inout theArray:ItemArray, in n:integer, in d:integer)
// sort n d-digit integers in the array theArray
for (j=d down to 1) {
Initialize 10 groups to empty
Initialize a counter for each group to 0
for (i=0 through n-1) {
k = jth digit of theArray[i]
Place theArrar[i] at the end of group k
Increase kth counter by 1
}
Replace the items in theArray with all the items in group 0,
followed by all the items in group 1, and so on.
}

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 Radix Sort -- Analysis
• The radix sort algorithm requires 2*n*d moves to sort n
strings of d characters each.
 So, Radix Sort is O(n)

• Although the radix sort is O(n), it is not appropriate as a

general-purpose sorting algorithm.
– Its memory requirement is d * original size of data (because each group
should be big enough to hold the original data collection.)
– For example, we need 27 groups to sort string of uppercase letters.
– The radix sort is more appropriate for a linked list than an array. (we will not
need the huge memory in this case)

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Comparison of Sorting Algorithms

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