Department of Family & Community Medicine

 Compare the different methods of data

presentation
 Determine the steps in constructing a good quality
statistical table
 Illustrate the types of graphs their specific uses
 In the year 2006, there were three
Hundred cases of malaria. 34% of the cases
Belonged to region I , 56% of cases belonged to
region 2, while 21% of cases belonged to region 3.
There were 34 deaths, of which 23% were males…

Characteristic Frequency Percentage Total

N=326 %

100

80

60 East
40 West
North
20

0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
 All the data is presented in the form of texts,
phrases, or paragraphs.
 It involves enumerating important
characteristics, emphasizing significant
figures and identifying important features of
data.
 Advantages
 the data would be more interpreted, because
there is a direct explanation of how the data
happened to be like that.
 Useful in small data sets and with limited
summaries
 Disadvantages
 May be cumbersome to read
 Can be overwhelming specially for the general
population to comprehend
 A Medical Student is asked to present the
performance of a section in the FCM. The
following are the test scores:
 34 42 20 50 17 9 34 43
50 18 35 43 50 23 23 35
37 38 38 39 39 38 38 39
24 29 25 26 28 27 44 44
49 48 46 45 45 46 45 46
 In the class of 40 students, 3 obtained the
perfect score of 50. Sixteen students got a
score of 40 and above, while only 3 got 19 and
below. Generally, the students performed
well in the test with 23 or 70% getting a
passing score of 38 and above.
 Provide a compact way of presenting large
data sets of detailed information
 Point out trends and comparisons
 Show interrelationships between variables
not seen in the textual format
 TYPES OF DATA TO BE TABULATED
 Frequency distribution data
 Correlation data
 Time-series data
 Frequency distribution data
 A frequency distribution is an overview of all
distinct values in some variable and the number
of times they occur.
 Frequency distributions are mostly used for
summarizing categorical/qualitative variables.
That's because metric/quantitative variables tend
to have many distinct values
 Correlation data
 Correlation is a statistical measure that indicates
the extent to which two or more variables
fluctuate together.
 Indicate the presence of a causal relationship

 Time-series data
 A time-series is a collection of observations or
measurements taken over a period of time,
generally in equal intervals.
1. Table Number
2. Table Title
3. Caption/Heading
4. Stub
5. Body
6. Head Note/Foot Note
7. Source Note
1.) Table number
 Numbered consecutively as they appear in the
report
 The word “Table” is written first followed by a
hyphen, dash or space
 First line of the title reaches the rightmost edge of
the table, with additional lines centered on the
succeeding lines “inverted pyramid”
2.) Table Title
 Gives the complete information as to what, where
and when the data was gathered
 Should be self-explanatory
 Place headnotes if necessary
 Traditionally placed above the table
3.) Column headings
 Indicate the basis of classification
 Centered on the columns where they belong
 If there are not vertical column rules, at least 2 spaces
should separate the column headings
 Width of the column caption should be at least equal the
maximum width of the figures presented
 Capitalization of the headings, row headings should follow
the style adopted for the title
 Columns may be numbered for the readers’ convenience if
the text refers to such columns
4.) Row headings or stubs
 Stubs indicate the basis of classification of the
rows or horizontal series of figures
 Subdivisions of a row heading should be indented
to the 3rd character as well as the words “total” ,
“average”, “mean”
 Characteristic Frequency Percentage

Age (months)
Mean
Range
Sex
Male 7 100
Female 0 --
5.) Body
 “cell” is the intersection of a row and a column
 Figures within the cells must be aligned by the decimal
points
 Align all plus and minus signs
 An empty cell should not be left blank. (indicate with a
zero or hyphen)
6.) Footnote
 Small letters rather than numbers should be used
 Immediately placed below the bottom rule of the table
7.) Source of the data
 When the data is not original, it is obligatory to
specify the source
 Source should be placed after the footnotes if any
or placed after the bottom rule of the table
 Source should not be placed as a footnote to the
page
1.) Simple, clear and direct
2.) Clean professional and uniform look
3.) Have concise captions and headings
4.) Uncluttered footnotes
4.) Observe a minimum of variables presented
5.) Well spaced columns and captions
6.) Positioning of the table
 Placed immediately after the text where it is first cited.
 Avoid placing large tables in foldable pages

7.) Uniformity of style

 Creates a feeling or “normal expectation” on the part of
the reader
8.) Number of variables presented
 Three variables is much ideal
 Four to five is too much already !
9.) Self-explanatory
 Complete table title
 All units of measure are indicated
 Uncommon abbreviations must be explained in
the footnotes
10.) Rulings
 Simple as possible

 2 or 3 small tables are preferred to a

single large table containing many details
or variables.
 3 variables constitute a maximum
number which can be read with ease

WHO Research Manual

 Should be self-explanatory
 Codes, abbreviations or symbols should be
explained in detail in a footnote
 Each row and each column should be labelled
concisely and clearly
 The specific units of measure should be given
 The table title should be clear and concise and to
the point. It answers what? When ? And where ?
 Totals should be shown
 The title is commonly separated from the
body of the table by lines of spaces.
 In small tables vertical lines separating the
columns may not be necessary

 If the data are not original their source should

be given in a footnote
1.) Simpler to read
2.) Appeal to a great number of people
3.) Complex data is presented in simple
language
4.) Use of colored, imaginative figures and
devices strengthen the emphasis on certain
aspects of the data
 Keep messages clear
 Do not over emphasize figures if they don’t
deserve to be emphasized
 Always place axis labels
 Place figure titles below each figure/graph
 Keep color legends simple and
understandable
 Provide cues for interpretation
 Used for SEX
nominal or any
categorical data
MALE
 Multiply the 25%
percentage by
360°
FEMAL
 Example E
 25% of 360°=90° 75%

 75% of 360°=270°
 Use a protractor Figure-1 Distribution of Enrolment by Sex,
School of Medicine, 2008
 Bars are Frequency
constructed 50 45
far apart 40 35
rather than
30
connected
because they 20
10
are 10 5
categorical 0
data and not Single Married Widowed Separated
continuous
Figure-1 Bar Graph on the Marital Status of 95 Voters,
Precinct A, Bulacan, 2008
 Bars are connected 30 30
30
to show degree of
difference 25
 E.g. 20
 100 persons in the 20
community

FREQUENCY
classified according 15
to social classes 10
10
 Social classes are
plotted in ascending 5 5
5
order from left to
right
0
 Frequency is the y- VL L BA AA H VH
axis, social classes on
the x-axis Figure-1 Bar Graph on Social Classes of 100 Individuals,
Malolos Bulacan, 2008
 Table-1 Frequency Distribution of 50 Students
 Rectangular bars should in a History Examination
be joined to emphasize
Score Midpoint Frequency
the degree of difference
among the different 30-34 32 5
steps distribution. 25-29 27 10
 For example, the 20 -24 22 25
scores of 50 students 15 – 19 17 5
in a history test
10 -14 12 5
grouped into a 5-step
distribution Total 50
 On the x-axis is the
midpoint, y-ordinate
Midpoint= Upper + Lower limit then divide by 2
the frequency
 30

F 25
R
E 20
Q
U 15
E
N 10

C
5
Y

0
12 17 22
Midpoint 27 32
MIDPOINT

Figure-1 Bar Graph of Scores of 50 Students in a History Test, EAC, 2009

 Displays
Trend in
time

Figure-2 Leptospirosis Cases in Brgy X, 1990-2010

 30

F 25
R
E 20
Q
U 15
E
N 10
C
5
Y
0
12
1 217 22
3 27
4 32
5 37
6
Midpoint

Figure-1 Midpoint Scores of 50 Students in a History Test, EAC, 2009

 Shows the 90
relationship of 80
two numerical S
70
variables 60
C
 Downward 50
Linear – O
40
 Means negative R 30
relationship E 20
 Upward Linear 10
 Means positive 0
relationship
0 5 10 15
Years from Graduation

Figure-1 Relationship of Memory Test and Years

from Graduation
 Upward Y-Values
14
Linear 12

Cups of Coffee
 Means 10
positive 8
6
relationship 4
2
0
0 5 10 15
Waking Time

Figure-1 Relationship of Cups of Coffee and

Waking Time
 Line inside the Highest

box indicates
the middle
value
 Whiskers
indicate the Median
highest and
Lowest
lowest values

Figure-1 Test Scores Across Sex