Unit II

BASIC
INTERNETWORKING
 Introduction
• By using switches and bridges it is possible to build a large
network but it is only up to certain limit.
• In order to further increase the scalability of network , we
connect multiple networks by a device called as “Router”
• Hence the network layer comes in to picture which takes
the responsibility of packet delivery from source to
destination among multiple networks
• internet – logical network built out of collection of
physical networks.
• Network of networks
• Routers / gateways - interconnect networks
• internetwork
Internetworking
• collection of
networks

• interconnected to
provide host-host
to packet delivery
service.
internetwork :
H represents hosts
and R represents
routers
 Basic Concepts
• IP – Internet Protocol
• CIDR – Classless Inter Domain Routing
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
• DHCP – Dynamic Host Control Protocol
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
 Internetworking
• What is IP
• IP stands for Internet Protocol, runs over anything
• Key tool used today to build scalable, heterogeneous internetworks
• It runs on all the nodes in a collection of networks
• It defines the infrastructure that allows these nodes and networks to function
as a single logical internetwork

A simple internetwork showing the protocol layers

 IP Service Model

• Packet Delivery Model

• Datagram - Connectionless model for data delivery
• Best-effort delivery (unreliable service)
• packets are lost
• packets are delivered out of order
• duplicate copies of a packet are delivered
• packets can be delayed for a long time

• Global Addressing Scheme

• Provides a way to identify all hosts in the internetwork
Position of IPv4 in TCP/IP protocol suite
Packet Format
 Packet Format
• Version (4): currently 4 (IPv4)
• Hlen (4): length of header in 32-bit words
• TOS (8): type of service – allow the packets to be
treated differently based on application needs.
• Length (16): number of bytes in this datagram,Counts
bytes rather than words
• Maximum size of an IP datagram (65,535 bytes).
• Physical network may not support such long packets
• Solution – Fragmentation & Reassembly
 Packet Format
• Ident (16): used by fragmentation
• Flags/Offset (16): used by fragmentation
• TTL (8): time to live, number of hops this
datagram has traveled, catch a packet (loop) -
64
• Protocol (8): demux key identifies the higher
level protocol to which IP packet should be
passed (TCP=6, UDP=17)
• Checksum (16): of the header only
• DestAddr & SrcAddr (32)
 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
• Each network has some MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)
• Ethernet (1500 bytes), FDDI (4500 bytes)

• Strategy
• Fragmentation occurs in a router when it receives a datagram that
it wants to forward over a network which has (MTU < datagram)
• Reassembly is done at the receiving host
• All the fragments carry the same identifier in the Ident field
• Fragments are self-contained datagrams
• IP does not recover from missing fragments
 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly

IP datagrams traversing the sequence of physical networks

 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly

Points to be noted:

• Each fragment – itself a self-contained IP datagram that is

transmitted over a sequence of physical networks,
independent of other fragments

• IP datagrams are re-encapsulated for each physical

network over which it travels.
 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly

Header fields used in IP fragmentation. (a) Unfragmented packet; (b)

fragmented packets.
 Global Addresses
• Properties
• globally unique
• hierarchical: network + host (logical structure of internetwork )
• Network part- identifies network to which host is attached
• Host part – identifies each host uniquely on the network
• 4 Billion IP address, half are A type, ¼ is B type, and 1/8 is C type

• Format (32 bit long – in all cases)

• Dot notation
• 10.3.2.4
• 128.96.33.81
• 192.12.69.77
 IPv4 Address Space

• IPV4 address space is the total number of addresses used by

the protocol. „

•„ IPv4 uses 32-bit address: „ The address

space=232=4,294,967,296 ( more than 4 billion) „ This
means, if there were no restrictions, more than 4 billions
devices would be connected to the network
Dotted-decimal notation and binary
notation for an IPv4 address
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation
to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number and add dots for separation.
27 = 126 class A IP Addresses
networks
Each of them
accommodate -----
224 -2 ( 16 million)
hosts
Class B – 65,534
hosts
Class C – 256 unique
host identifiers, 0
not valid, 255 –
broadcasting,
remaining 254
attached to hosts
(221)
• In classful is divided into five classes, the address space : A, B,
C, D, and E
• Find the class of each address.

• a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

• b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

• c. 14.23.120.8

• d. 252.5.15.111
Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.
 IP Datagram Forwarding
• Strategy
• every datagram contains destination's address
• if directly connected to destination network, then forward to host
• if not directly connected to destination network, then forward to
some router
• forwarding table maps network number into next hop
• each host has a default router
• each router maintains a forwarding table
Example (router R2)
 IP Datagram Forwarding
if (NetworkNum of destination = NetworkNum of one
of my interfaces) then
deliver packet to destination over that interface
else
if (NetworkNum of destination is in my forwarding
table) then
deliver packet to NextHop router
else
deliver packet to default router

For a host with only one interface and only a default

router in its forwarding table, this simplifies to

if (NetworkNum of destination = my NetworkNum)then

deliver packet to destination directly
else
deliver packet to default router
 Blocks in class A

Millions of class A addresses are wasted

Blocks in class B
 Blocks in class C
The number of addresses in class C is smaller than the needs of
most organizations
 A network with two levels of hierarchy (not sub
netted eg. Class B)

Problem - Address depletion : with Class A, B & C

Solution - Subnetting : Class A & B block is divided
into several subnets
A network with three levels of hierarchy
(subnetted)
Addresses in a network with and without
subnetting
Default masks

32
Default mask and subnet mask
• The network address is the
beginning address of each
block.
• It can be found by applying
the default mask to any of
the addresses in the block
(including itself). It retains
the netid of the block and
sets the hostid to zero
• Add another level to Subnetting
address/routing hierarchy:
subnet

• Subnet masks single network

number can be shared among
multiple networks involves
configuring all the modes on
each subnets.

• Subnet – visible only within

site.
 Subnetting

• Forwarding Table at Router R1

 Subnetting
Forwarding Algorithm

D = destination IP address
for each entry < SubnetNum, SubnetMask, NextHop>
D1 = SubnetMask & D
if D1 = SubnetNum (sending host – destination in
same subnet)
if NextHop is an interface
deliver datagram directly to destination
else
deliver datagram to NextHop (a router)
What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is
200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?
Solution
We apply the AND operation on the address and the
subnet mask.
Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000
Subnet Mask ➡ 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
Subnetwork Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000.

37
 Comparison of a default mask
and a subnet mask

Default masking is a process that extracts the network address

from an IP address.
Subnet masking is a process that extracts the subnetwork address
from an IP address
 Classless Addressing
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing
• A technique that addresses two scaling concerns in the Internet
• The growth of backbone routing table as more and more network numbers need
to be stored in them
• Potential exhaustion of the 32-bit address space
• Address assignment efficiency
• Arises because of the IP address structure with class A, B, and C addresses
• Forces us to hand out network address space in fixed-size chunks of three very
different sizes
• A network with two hosts needs a class C address
• Address assignment efficiency = 2/255 = 0.78
• A network with 256 hosts needs a class B address
• Address assignment efficiency = 256/65535 = 0.39
 Classless Addressing
• Exhaustion of IP address space centers on exhaustion of the class B
network numbers
• Solution
• Say “NO” to any Autonomous System (AS) that requests a class B address unless
they can show a need for something close to 64K addresses
• Instead give them an appropriate number of class C addresses
• For any AS with at least 256 hosts, we can guarantee an address space utilization
of at least 50%

• What is the problem with this solution?

 Classless Addressing
• Problem with this solution
• Excessive storage requirement at the routers.
• If a single AS has, say 16 class C network numbers assigned
to it,
• Every Internet backbone router needs 16 entries in its routing
tables for that AS
• This is true, even if the path to every one of these networks is the
same
• If we had assigned a class B address to the AS
• The same routing information can be stored in one entry
• Efficiency = 16 × 255 / 65, 536 = 6.2%
 Classless Addressing
• In classless Addressing, variable length blocks are used that
belong to no classes. We can have block of 1 address, 2
addresses, 4 addresses, 128 addresses and so on.

•
• Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) tries to balance the desire
to minimize the number of routes that a router needs to know
against the need to hand out addresses efficiently.

• CIDR uses aggregate routes

• Uses a single entry in the forwarding table to tell the router how to reach a
lot of different networks
• Breaks the rigid boundaries between address classes
 Classless Addressing
• Consider an AS with 16 class C network numbers.

• Instead of handing out 16 addresses at random, hand out a block of contiguous

class C addresses

• Suppose we assign the class C network numbers from 192.4.16 through

192.4.31

• Observe that top 20 bits of all the addresses in this range are the same
(11000000 00000100 0001)
• We have created a 20-bit network number (which is in between class B network number
and class C number in terms of no. of hosts that it can support)
 Classless Addressing
• We get high address efficiency of handing out address in chunks
smaller than class B network and a single network prefix that
can be used in forwarding tables.

• Requires to hand out blocks of class C addresses that share

a common prefix
 Classless Addressing
• In IPv4 addressing, a block of
addresses can be defined as x.y.z.t /n

• x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n defines the mask

• The convention is to place a /n after the prefix, where n is the prefix length in
bits

• For example, the 20-bit prefix for all the networks 192.4.16 through 192.4.31
is represented as 192.4.16/20

• By contrast, if we wanted to represent a single class C network number, which is

24 bits long, we would write it 192.4.16/24
A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization
 Classless Addressing
• How do the routing protocols handle this classless addresses
• It must understand that the network number may be of any length

• Represent network number with a single pair

<length, value>

All routers must understand CIDR addressing

• The first address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n
bits to 0s.

• A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. One of the

addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.What is the first address in the block?

Solution

• The binary representation of the given address is

11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111

If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get

11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or 205.16.37.32.
 Classless Addressing
• The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 1s.

• A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. One of the addresses is

205.16.37.39/28.What is the first address in the block?

Solution

• The binary representation of the given address is

11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111

• If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get

11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111

or

205.16.37.47
 Classless Addressing
• The number of addresses in the block can be found by using the
formula 232−n.

• A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We

know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. find the
no. of address in the block?

• Solution:
• The first address in a block is normally not assigned to any
device; it is used as the network address that represents the
organization to the rest of the world.

• Each address in the block can be considered as a two-level

hierarchical structure:
• the leftmost n bits (prefix) define the network

• the rightmost 32 − n bits define the host

 Classless Addressing

 Customer share a common, shorter

address prefix
 Aggregation of routes
 ISP advertise single route to reach all
the 8 customers with common 21 bits
Route aggregation with CIDR
prefix they share.
 IP Forwarding Revisited
• IP forwarding mechanism assumes that it can find the network
number in a packet and then look up that number in the
forwarding table

• We need to change this assumption in case of CIDR

• CIDR means that prefixes may be of any length, from 2 to 32 bits

 IP Forwarding Revisited
• It is also possible to have prefixes in the forwarding tables that
overlap
• Some addresses may match more than one prefix
• For example, we might find both 171.69 (a 16 bit prefix) and
171.69.10 (a 24 bit prefix) in the forwarding table of a single
router
• A packet destined to 171.69.10.5 clearly matches both prefixes.
• The rule is based on the principle of “longest match”
• 171.69.10 in this case
• A packet destined to 171.69.20.5 would match 171.69 and not
171.69.10
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Sending node knows:
• destination host or receiving node IP address
• IP address of the next hop router or default router
• Each router expect the last one in the path gets the IP address of the next
router in the forwarding table .
• Last router knows the IP address of the destination host.
• But IP address of the next node is not helpful in moving the frame through
a link
• We need link layer address of the next node
ARP - Map IP addresses into physical addresses or logical link address and
passes into data link layer
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Techniques
• encode physical address in host part of IP address
• table-based

• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

• table of IP to physical address bindings
• broadcast request if IP address not in table
• target machine responds with its physical address
• table entries are discarded if not refreshed
 ARP Packet Format

• HardwareType: type of physical network (e.g., Ethernet)

• ProtocolType: type of higher layer protocol (e.g., IP)
• HLEN & PLEN: length of physical and protocol addresses
• Operation: request or response
• Source/Target Physical(Ethernet)/Protocol (IP) addresses
 Host Configurations
• Notes
• Ethernet addresses are configured into network by network adopter manufacturer and they
are unique
• IP addresses must be unique on a given internetwork but also must reflect the structure of the
internetwork
• Most host Operating Systems provide a way to manually configure the IP information for the
host
• Drawbacks of manual configuration
• A lot of work to configure all the hosts in a large network
• Configuration process is error-prune

• Automated Configuration Process is required

 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• DHCP is the preferred mechanism for dynamic assignment of
IP addresses
• DHCP server is responsible for providing configuration
information to hosts
• There is at least one DHCP server for an administrative
domain
• DHCP server maintains a pool of available addresses
 DHCP
• Newly booted or attached host
sends DHCPDISCOVER message
to a special IP address
(255.255.255.255)
• One DHCP server not required for
each network. (DHCP relay agent
for one network – configured with
IP address of DHCP server)
• DHCP relay agent unicasts the
message to DHCP server and waits
for the response.
DHCP
 DHCP message format

OpCode (1 = Req, 2 = Hardware Type (1 = Hardware Address

Hop Count
Reply) Ethernet) Length
Unused (in BOOTP)
Number of Seconds
Flags (in DHCP)
Transaction ID

Client IP address

Your IP address

Server IP address

Gateway IP address

Client hardware address (16 bytes)

Server host name (64 bytes)

Boot file name (128 bytes)

Options
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
• IP unreliable, connectionless datagram delivery

– Efficient use of network resources

– Best effort service to send from source to destination

• -No error control

- What if router must discard datagram because it cannot find

route to final destination?

- What if final destination must discard all fragments because

some don’t arrive within time limit?

- Error has occurred and IP Protocol has no built-in

mechanism to notify the original host

• No method to obtain node information

– Is router or host alive?

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
• Defines a collection of error messages that are sent back to
the source host whenever a router or host is unable to
process an IP datagram successfully
• Destination host unreachable due to link /node failure
• Reassembly process failed
• TTL had reached 0 (so datagrams don't cycle forever)
• IP header checksum failed

• ICMP-Redirect
• From router to a source host
• Eg. It tells source, a better route to the destination
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
• ICMP provides two widely used debugging tools:
• Ping : uses ICMP echo messages to determine if a node is
reachable and alive

• Traceout : uses non-intuitive technique to determine the set of

routers along the path to a destination.