7th UNIT

TRANSDUCERS
Def: A device that receives energy from one systems
and transmits it to other

There are 2 types

1.Electrical
2.Mechanical
Electrical Transducer Parameters:

1.Linearity

2.Sensitivity

3.Dynamic range

4.Repeatability

5.Physical size
There are 2 major categories

1.Active (no ext. power)

ex:piezo electric sensors, photo
voltaic cells

2.Passive Transducer(ext. power)

ex:strain gauges,thermistors.
Transducer = sensing + transduction elements

1.Resistive 6.photo-emissive

2.Inductive 7.photo-resistive

3.Capacitive 8.Potentiometric

4.Electro magnetic 9.thermo-electric

5.piezo-electric 10.Frequency generating

 Selecting a Transducer
 Operating range
 Sensitivity
 Frequency response & resonant frequency
 Environmental capability
 Minimum sensitivity
 Accuracy
 Usage & ruggedness
 Electrical parameters
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER

Resistance changes due to a change in some

physical phenomenon

->change in resistance with change in conductor

can measure displacement.

->change in resistance with change in

temperature can measure displacement.
Potentio meter
 Potentio meter
Advantages : Draw backs:
 Inexpensive
 Large force is
 Simple to operate
required
 Measure large  Sliding contacts can
 amplitudes wear out
 Efficiency is high
 Resistance pressure transducer
 Bellow type  Diaghram type
Resistance position transducer

Vo / Vt =R2 / (R1 +R2)

 STRAIN GAUGES

-> passive type

-> variation in resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by

force on wires.

-> stress = force / unit area

-> strain = elongation or compression / unit area

If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed its resistance changes
on account of conductor changes. This is the property called
“ PIEZO-RESISTIVE EFFECT” .
Therefore resistance strain gauges are also known as resistive gauges.

The resistance of gauge increases with positive strain.

Types of strain gauges:

1.Wire
2.Foil
3.Semiconductor
 RESISTANCE WIRE GAUGE

These are used in 2 basic forms.

Bonded type

Un bonded type.
Un Bonded type
Bonded type

R=ρ*l/A
STRAIN GAUGES USED IN BRIDGE ARRANGEMENT
 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

 Done by dummy strain gauge

 This is not undergo strain

 Types of Strain Gauges(wire)
 Grid
 Rossette
 Torque
 Helical
Must need chars of resistance wire strain gauges

 High value of gauge factor

 Resistance should be high
 Low resistive temp. coefficient
 Not to have hysteresis curve
 Frequency response high
 Linearity of chars.
 Leads must have low resistive temp. coefficient
 Foil Strain Gauge
 Metals & alloys used Ex: nichrome,Ni+Cu,Ni+Cr+Mo
 Having similar chars.to wire
 Adv:
->fabricated on large scale and in any shape, thinner
 Semiconductor Strain gauges
 Having
high sensitivity , gauge factor of 50 times greater

->Semiconductor wafer or filaments are used.

Advantages Disadvantages
 High gauge factor  Sensitive to temp.

 Hysteresis chars less  Linearity is poor

than 0.05%
 Expensive
 Life in excess of
10*106 operations

 Small in size
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
 Either self generative or passive
 Self based on basic generator principle i.e
motion b/w conductor & magnetic field
induces voltage.
 Converts physical motion to change in
inductance.
 Working principles based on
 Variation of self inductance
 Variation of Mutual inductance

->Inductive transducers mainly used for measure

displacement
->Displacement causes variation in
 No. of turns

 Geometric configuration

 permeability

L=N2/R
 Change in self inductance with no. of turns

 As the no. Of turns changed self inductance and the o/p

changes.
 Change in self inductance with change in
Permeability
 As the iron core is surrounded by winding the change
in Permeability Changes in self inductance.
 When iron core is moved out of winding, permeability
decreases so inductance decreases.
 Variable reluctance transducer
 The reluctance of magnetic path is
determined by air gap.
 L = N 2 / Rg

where Rg = lg / (µ0 *Ag)

 When target is near the core length is small so

L is large.
 If it is away length is high so L is small.
 Hence induction coil is a function of distance
target from core.
 i.e length of air gap.
Variable reluctance bridge circuit
 Differentiable output transducer
 It consist of coil divided into two parts.
->Advantages
 Sensitivity & accuracy are increased

 Output is less effected by external magnetic

field.
 Variations due to temp. are reduced.

 Change in supply voltage & frequency are

reduced.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSDUCER(LVDT)
E = Es1 – Es2
Advantages Disadvantages
 Linearity  Large displacements
 Infinite resolution required
 High output  Sensitive to stray
 High sensitivity magnetic fields
 Ruggedness
 The Rx element must
operate on ac
 Less friction
 Limited dynamic response
 Low hysteresis
 Temp. effects.
 Low power consumption
Pressure inductive transducer
Capacitive transducer(pressure)
C = K A /d
K = dielectric constant
A = total area
D = distance b/w plates
C = resultant capacitance
Load cell(pressure cell)
 Temperature transducer
 Temp. is most widely measured &
controlled variable in industry.
 Temp. transducers are

Resistive temp. detectors (RTD)

Thermistors
Thermocouples
 Resistance temperature detector
(RTD)
 RTD is passive
 uses platinum , nickel , any res. Wire
which vary with temp.

 Rt = Rref ( 1 + αΔt )

 C , ge are NTC.
 Advantages Disadvantages
 Linear  Low sensitivity

 Wide operating range  Affected by shocks ,

vibrations etc
 Higher temp
operation  High cost

 Stability  Requires 3 or 4 wire

2-lead wire

3-lead wire
 Resistance thermometer
 The resistance of thermometer changes
when its temp. is changed.
->The requirements of conductor material are
 The change in resistance due to change in

temp. are as large as possible.

 Must have continuous relationship with

temperature.
• The main section of resistance thermometer
is sensing element.
• Platinum , nickel and copper are used as
sensing element.
Resistance thermometer connected in bridge

(R1 / R2) = ( (Rs + R3 + R4) / R5 )

Advantages disadvantages
 Accurate  High cost
 Easily installed &
removed
 Need for bridge &
 Check accuracy
power source
 Measure differential
temp.
 Wide working range  Possibility of self
 Suited for remote sensing heating.
 Stability
Thermistor( THERMally sensitive resISTOR)
 Non metallic resistors.
 Ex : semiconductor materials , Mn , Ni , Co
, Cu , uranium.
 Thermistors are NTC
 Used for temp. controlling ,
compensation , measurements.
 Advantages Disadvantages
 Small size , loe cost  Non linearity
 Fast response
 Good sensitivity in NTC  Un suitable for wide
region range
 Cold j-n compensation  Need of shield
not required
 Contact and lead
resistance problems
not encountered
 Thermocouple

 In 1821, T.J. Seebeck discovered that an electric

potential occurs when 2 different metals are joined into
a loop and the two junctions are held at different
temperatures.

 Seebeck emf – a voltage difference between the two

ends of the conductor that depends on the temperature
difference of the ends and a material property.

 If the ends of the wire have the same temperature, no

emf occurs, even if the middle of the wire is hotter or
colder.
 Seebeck Effect
 When two wires composed of dissimilar metals
are joined at both ends and one of the ends is
heated, there is a continuous current which
flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Thomas
Seebeck made this discovery in 1821.

T1 T2
 A

i
T2 T1

B
A

T2 T1

B - Emf + B

Emf  1(T2  T1)   2 (T2 2  T12 )   3 (T23  T13 )  ....

Emf   (T )
 Peltier Thermal Effect
 When an electrical current flows across the
junction of a thermo element pair, the
conductor losing electrons aquire +ve voltage
w.r.to the other conductor.
 This produce emf
 This is peltier effect.
A Eex A

T1 T2
i

B
 Thomson Effect
 If temp. of one end of a conductor is raised above
of other end , excess electrons from hot end will
diffuse to the cold end.

 This results induced emf.

 This is thomson effect.

Thermocouple - Principle

Twisting or welding of 2 wires

In normal operation, cold junction
is placed in an ice bath
In normal operation, cold junction
is placed in an ice bath
 Thermocouples
 Type K : Chromel-Alumel
 Type J : Iron-Constantan

 Type E : Chromel-Constantan

 Type N : Nicros-Nisil

 Type T : Copper-Constantan

 It is important to note that thermocouples

measure the temperature difference between

two points, not absolute temperature.
 Magnitude of thermal EMF
E  c(T1  T2 )  k (T  T ) 1
2
2
2

where
c and k = constants of the thermocouple materials
T1 = the temperature of the ‘hot’ junction
T2 = the temperature of the ‘cold’ or ‘reference’ junction
Capabilities and Limitations

Capabilities:
- Wide Range
- Fast Response
- Passive
- Inexpensive

Limitations:
- CJC
- Non-Linear
 Thermopiles
 For increased sensitivity
 Comparisons

Resistance
Thermocouple Thermometer (RTD) Thermistor Infrared

Reasonable for
Stability (Drift) limited lifetime Good Good Good
Repeatability Reasonable Good Good Good
Hysteresis Excellent Good Good Good

Vibration Very Resistant Less Resistant Good

Whole Tolerant
bead
Measurement Area Single Point Whole RT Element (Small)
Small Varies
Small Sizes (to (0.5mm
Diameter 0.25mm) Larger (3.0mm min) min) Varies
Reasonably
Linearity Not Linear Reasonably Linear Not Linear Linear
Not
Reference Junction Required Not Required Required Not Required

Lead Wire Resistance No Problem Must be Considered No Problem Not Required

Contact Required Yes Yes Yes No
Response Fast Slower Medium Fast
 Pyrometers
 This is used in situations of measuring
high temp, and where physical contact is
not possible.
 Measures the radiant heat emitted by hot
object.
Q = 5.72 * 10 ^ -8 * t ^4 w/m2

Radiation pyrometers are 2 types

1.Total radiation pyrometer

2. Infrared pyrometer
Total radiation pyrometer
 Receives virtually all radiations from heat
body
 Infrared pyrometer

 Partial or selective radiations

 Piezo electrical transducer
 Crystal metal produce emf when they
placed under stress.
 This property used in Piezo electrical
transducers.
 Ex : quartz , rochelle salt , barium
titanate.
E = Q / Cp
 Photo electric transducer
 Categorized into
 Photo emissive---radiation falling on
cathode causes electrons emission.
 Photo conductive---resistance of material
is changed when it is illuminated
 Photo voltaic ---generates o/p voltage
proportional to radium intensity
 Photo multiplier tube
 Contains evacuated glass envelope within
cathode , anode ,several electrodes
termed dynodes.
Photo conductive cells or photo cells
Photo voltaic cells or solar cells
 Produce electrical current when connected
to a load

 Silicon and selenium

 Use multiple photo voltaic cells

 Semiconductor photo diode
 A reverse biased diode produce leaky
current when exposed to light.
 When use reverse voltage act as photo
conductive
 When use reverse voltage act as photo
voltaic cell.
 Photo transistor
 Sensitivity of photo diode is very much
100 times increased by adding a junction.
 Resulting a npn device
E=C*B*L*V

E = induced voltage
C= dimensional const.
B= magnetic flux
L= length of conductor
V= velocity