Approaches

Learning Mats
The origins of Psychology
• Wilhelm Wundt: Evaluation
• Established experimental psychology as a science • Wundt’s methods were reliable
• Involves breaking down behaviour into basic elements • Introspection not particularly accurate – Nisbett
• Introspection was the chosen method of study and Wilson
• Worked by asking individuals to engage in a task and then • Strengths of the scientific approach – Objective
reflect the mental processes they were using
and systematic methods, determines cause and
• Used to establish general theories about mental processes effect relationship and self-corrective nature.
• The emergence of Psychology as a Science
• Limitations includes reliance on contrived
• Scientific psychology uses empirical methods situation, the need for inference, lack of
• Assumptions of determinism and predictability agreement over appropriateness of scientific
• Refers to the use of methods that are objective, systematic method for studying human behaviour
and replicable
• Introspection still has relevance in psychology –
• Replication means results may be accepted as true Csikzenmihalyi and Hunter
• Include development of theories that can explain results and
constant testing and refining
The Behaviourist Approach
Classical Conditioning: Operant Conditioning
• Pavlov • Likelihood of repeating behaviour depends on its
• Involves pairing of NS with UCS so that eventually consequences
NS becomes CS, capable of eliciting a CR
• Positive and negative reinforcement increases the
• NS + UCS=UCR likelihood of a behaviour occurring
• After many pairings NS (CS) + CR • Pleasant consequences = Positive reinforcement
• Timing – NS must be shortly before UCS
• Removal of an unpleasant stimulus = negative
• Extinction – CS loses its ability to produce CR after a reinforcement
few trials if no reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement effective for establishing
• Spontanious recovery – CS+UCS paired again, link
made much more quickly. a behaviour, partial reinforcement for maintaining
it
• Stimulus generalisation- CR also to stimuli that are
similar to CS. • Adding unpleasant consequences, or removing
pleasant stimulus = punishment
Evaluation of Classical Conditioning
Evaluation of Operant Conditioning
+ includes the treatments for reduction of
anxiety + reliance on the experimental method
- Different species have different capabilities - Much of Skinners work was on non-human
to learn through classical conditioning animals, excluding possibility of human free
will.
Further Evaluation
Behaviourists explanations ignore the role
played by cognitive and emotional factors
Social Learning Theory
• New patterns of behaviour acquired as a result of Bandura et al 1961
observation of others
Procedure:
• Models provide examples of behaviour that can be
• Children observed aggressive or non-aggressive
observed and imitated.
models interacting with a Bobo doll.
• Key determinanrs: 1: Characteristics of model, 2:
• The aggressive model displayed distinctive physical
Observers ability to perform behaviour, 3: Its
and verbal aggression towards the doll
observed consequences
• Children then allowed to interact with doll
• Identification of a model based on perceived
similarities Findings
• Vicarious reinforcement: individuals learn about • Children who observed the aggressive model
the likely consequesnces of a behaviour by imitated their aggression.
observing others.
• Children who observed the non-aggressive model
• Individuals must form mental representations of showed little aggression
the behaviour and its possible consequences
Evaluation
+ understanding of criminal behaviour (Ulrich), Learning more effective from similar than dissimilar model (Fox and
Bailenson)
- Criticism of the view of criminals behaviour due to exposure to deviant models (Siegel and McCormick), Advocates of
SLT disregard other potential influences on behaviour
+Identification has been shown to be important in Social Learning (Andsager- Health Campaigns)
 Cognitive Approach
The study of internal mental processes Evaluation
• Mental processes cannot be studied Strengths:
directly so must be inferred. • Cognitive approach has applications e.g. cognitive
approach to psychopathology.
• Schemas fill in gaps in the absence of
• Cognitive approach is scientific, i.e. it uses the
full information
scientific method.
• Theoretical models are simplified Limitations:
representations based on current • There are many differences between computer
evidence.
processing and human processing e.g. computers do
The emergence of cognitive not make mistakes
neuroscience • The cognitive approach ignores emotion and
The emergence of cognitive motivation, irrelevant to a computer but not a
neuroscience e.g. use of neuroimaging human.
techniques to study the brain.
Burnett et al. when people feel guilty, Further Evaluation
medial prefrontal cortex is active Most research uses tasks that are relatively
meaningless in real-life settings.
 The Biological Approach
Biological influences on behaviour Evaluation
Genes carry the instructions for a particular characteristic from one
generation to the next. Strengths:
Biological approach uses the scientific method –
Relative role of genes or environment = nature – nurture debate.
makes replication easier
Genotype is the genetic written in individuals DNA . Biological approach provides clear predictions which
Phenotype is physical manifestation of this inherited information. can be tested
Limitations:
Heritability = the amount of variability in a trait within a population Biological approach is reductionist
attributed to genetic differences.
Evolutionary explanations stress importance of
The nervous system = central and peripheral nervous systems. biological evolution, but ignores possibility of cultural
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum, divided into 4 lobes. evolution
Neurotransmitters enable nerve impulses to cross the synapse. Further evaluation
Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters stimulate or inhibit a Identifying a genetic basis for behaviour may lead to
receiving nerve cell. discrimination of the basis of a particular genotype.
Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Hormones – produced by endocrine cells and stimulate target cells.
Evolution and behaviour through natural selection.
The Psychodynamic Approach
Freud's Theory of Psychoanalysis A03
• Unconscious mind controls many of our everyday activities Strengths
• Defence mechanisms prevent traumatic memories from the • Freud the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological
unconscious from reaching conscious awareness. treatments for disorders.
• The ID, ego and superego • Fisher and Greenberg found support for many psychological
claims.
• ID operates according to the pleasure principle.
• Ego mediates between the demands of the ID and demands
of reality. Limitations
• Superego divided into conscience and ego-ideal. • Psychoanalysis is gender biased (based on male rather than
female sexuality).
• Defence mechanisms operate unconsciously, distrorting
reality to reduce anxiety. • Psychoanalysis is culture biased – little evidence from people
from non-western cultures.
• Repression – the unconscious blocking of unacceptable
thoughts. • Psychoanalysis is a comprehensive theory, including use as a
form of literary criticism.
• Deniel – the refusal to accept reality.
• Displacement – redirecting of thoughts and feelings from
original target onto an innocent object.
• Psychosexual stages – oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital.
The Humanistic Approach
A01 A03
Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach Strengths
• Stresses the importance of free will and conscious control over our • Maslow’s hierarchy linked to economic development (e.g. Hagerty).
own destiny.
• Research support for conditions of worth (e.g. Harter et al.).
• Maslow interested in what could go right rather than what could go
wrong.
• Hierarchy of needs – most basic needs at the bottom, higher needs at Limitations
the top.
• Humanistic research methods produce data that is mostly
• People reaching self-actualisation experience it through peak correlational.
experiences. Rogers used term to describe fully functioning person.
• The humanistic approach represents an overly idealised and unrealistic
• Feelings of self worth develop in childhood as a result of interactions view of human nature.
with parents.
• Cross-cultural evidence that in some cultures needs appear in a
• State of congruence exists when similarity between person’s ideal self different order (Nervis).
and how they perceive themselves to be.
• Conditions of worth arise when people experience conditional rather
than unconditional positive regard.
• Problems a product of person’s conditions of worth. Therapist
provides unconditional positive regard to help person self actualise.
Comparison of
Approaches
Determinism,: The causes of Nature and Nurture: The origins of Psychology as a science
behaviour
behaviour • Behaviourist – positive (highly objective
• Behaviourist – nurture (interactions with and experimentally based).
• Behahourism – our environment)
• Social Learning – positive (influences
reinforcement history • Social learning – primarily nurture about cause and effect can be drawn).
(observing others)
• Social Leanring – oberservation • Cognitive – positive to a degree
of others • Cognitive – both nature and nurture (propositions can be tested, but a good
(innate factors although can be modified deal of inference is necessary).
• Cognitive – our own throught by experience).
• Biological – positive (lends itself to
processes • Biological – primarily nature (innate experiment study).
factors although can be modified by
• Biological – physiological and/or experience). • Psychodynamic – mixed (some aspects
open to scientific investigation but
genetic factors • Psychodynamic – both nature and greater reliance on case studies).
nurture (unconscious forces and
• Psychodynamic – unconscious upbringing). • Humanistic – largely negative (scientific
factors methods seen as inappropriate for
• Humanistic – both nature and nurture human experience).
(drive to self actualise and conditions of
• Humanistic – our own free will worth).