DATA COLLECTION

BY: MRS. PRECILLA C. STEPHEN

 INTRODUCTION
Data collection is a process of collecting the data needed for the study.
Collection of data is the most important and initial step in the statistical
treatment of the problem. The data forms the basis for analysis.
 DATA
Data are the pieces of information. It is a fact which is measurable and
observable.
 FORMS OF DATA
• Continuous Data: - It is the data located at some point along a scale.

• Discrete Data: - It exists as distinct units. It is characterized by whole numbers. It

is precise and definite e.g. 4

• Quantitative data: - Information in the form of numerical values

• Qualitative data: - It includes verbal information.

• Judgemental data: - It includes opinions, values and beliefs of experts

• Ordinal data: - It consists of categories of a variable that are rank ordered

• Nominal data: - It consists of different categories of a variable in to which each subjects

response is placed and the number of responses are summed to give percentages.

• Dichotomous data: - These data fall into only two categories. It represents the presence
or absence of a characteristics.
DATA SOURCES
PRIMARY SOURCES SECONDARY SOURCES

INTERNAL SOURCES EXTERNAL SOURCES (PUBLIC DOCUMENTS)

(PRIVATE DOCUMENTS)

PUBLISHED RECORDSD UNPUBLISHED

RECORDS

People, objects, • Biographic • Journals & Magazines • Unpublished thesis

programmes, institutions • Diaries • Newspapers • Unpublished
etc (Primary data are • Letters • Government reports dissertations and
collected through • Memories • Statistical abstracts reports
interview, questioning, • Census reports • Official or patient
observation, biochemical • Mass communication records
measurements and • Commission reports
 It can be classified as:
• Primary Sources

• Secondary Sources

• Field sources
 PRIMARY SOURCES
The data collected directly by researcher from the original source is known as
primary data. These are collected directly through personal interview, observation,
using various questionnaires and other data collection techniques. Nurses collecting
data regarding illness directly from the patient in clinical setting is an example of
primary data. These are otherwise known as first hand data or original data.
 SECONDARY SOURCES
Readily available data are known as secondary data. These data are
collected and complied by other person for some other purpose or
documentation and is used for research purpose.
 FIELD SOURCES
A legitimate person who has been in intimate contact with social condition and
changes over a period of time is in position to give information regarding the
observational trends. Information from such persons are known as field source. It
also includes conditions, environment and events that are observable and
measurable.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Data collection means gathering information to address those

critical research questions that have been identified earlier in the
research process.
 PURPOSES
• To transform the information into a meaningful form

• To identify facts

• To measure variable

• To describe behaviour

• To obtain empirical evidence

• To plan, organize, analyse, report the information

 SELECTION OF METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
• The nature of phenomenon under study • Distribution of the target population

• Type of research subject • Time frame of the study

• The type of research study • Literacy level of the subjects

• The purpose of the research study • Availability of resources and manpower

• Size of the study sample • Researchers knowledge level and

competence
 1. OBSERVATION
• Observation is a way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events or noting
physical characteristics in their natural setting.

• It can be also be either direct or indirect.

• Direct observation is when you watch interactions, or behaviours as they occur.

• Indirect observation are when you watch the results of interactions or behaviours.
 USES OF OBSERVATION METHOD
• To understand an ongoing process or situation

• To gather data on individual behaviours or interactions between people

• To know about a physical setting

• Data collection where other methods are not possible

 TYPE OF OBSERVATION
• STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS: - It is guided by the preplanned structured or semi-
structured instrument, where the researcher observes only specific behaviours in accordance
with planned observations guidelines.

Structured observations is generally carried out by using following tools:

1. Checklist:

2. Rating Scale

3. Category System
• UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS: - It is made with minimally structured or researcher-imposed
categories. It is used for complete and nonspecific observations of phenomenon, which is very well
known by the researcher.

The following tools are as follows:

1. Log and field notes
2. Anecdotes
3. Field diary
4. Video recording
• PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS: - Here observer may live or work in field and actively participate
in ongoing activities for the extended period. In addition, observer becomes the accepted member of the
group or community.

• NONPARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS: - Here observer works as ab eavesdropper (secretly listening

or observing), where an attempted is made to observe people without interacting with them. In this
technique, the observer is not a participant in the setting but is merely viewing the situation. In addition,
people are observed without their knowledge that they are being observed. This method is routinely used
by psychologists to study children or animal.
 PLANNING FOR OBSERVATIONS
• Determining the focus

• Design a system for data collection

• Select the sites

• Select the observers

• Train the observers

• Time your observations appropriately

 ADVANTAGES
• Collect data where and when an event or activity is occurring.
• Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide information.
• Allows to directly see what people do rather than relying on what people say
they did.
• It permits gathering large quantity of data.
• All minute and hidden facts can be disclosed.
 DISADVANTAGES
• Does not increase understanding of why people behave as they do.

• Can be expensive and time consuming compared to other data

collection methods.

• Susceptible to observer bias.

• Observer has no control over surroundings.

QUESTIONING/QUESTIONNARE
Questionnaire are one of the most popular methods of conducting
research. They provide a convenient way of gathering information from a
target population. They are cost-effective and easy to construct and
analyse.
DEFINTION
The instrument is called a questionnaire or sometimes a self
administered questionnaire, when respondent complete the
instrument themselves, usually in a paper and pencil format but
occasionally directly onto a computer.
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS
1. OPEN – FORMAT QUSTIONS

They are those questions which provide opportunity to the respondents to express
their opinion and answers in their own way.

2. CLOSED – FORMAT QUESTIONS

These questions offer respondents a number of alternative replies, from which the
subjects must choose the one that most likely matches the appropriate answer.
TYPES OF CLOSED END QUESTIONS
1. Dichotomous questions: There require the respondent to make a choice between
responses such as yes/no or male/female.

2. Multiple – Choice Questions: These questions require respondents to make a choice

between more than two response alternatives.

Ex: Which of the following disease is sexually transmitted?

a) Diabetes Mellitus

b) Hypothyroidism

c) Syphilis

d) Hypertension
3. Cafeteria Questions: These are special type of multiple choice questions that ask respondents to select a
response that most closely respondents to their views.
Ex: What do you think about hormone replacement therapy?
a) It is dangerous, should be avoided.
b) One should be cautious while using it.
c) I am uncertain about my views.
d) It is beneficial, should be promoted.
4. Rank order questions: These questions ask respondents to rank their responses from most favourable to
least favourable.
Ex: What according to you is most important for your life. Rank from most favourable to least favourable.
a) Money
b) Education
c) Family
d) Health
5. CONTINGENCY QUESTIONS: A questions that is asked further only if the
respondent gives a particular response to previous question.

Ex: Are you stressed?

a) No

b) Yes, if yes what are the reasons?..........................

6. Rating Questions: These questions ask respondents to judge something along an

ordered dimension. Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges
from poor to good. They may provide a number of choices.
1 2 3 4
Ex: How you rank the education quality in India?
Good Fair Poor Very poor
7. LIKERT QUESTIONS: Likert questions help to know how strongly the respondent agrees
with a particular statement. These questions help to assess how respondent feels towards a
certain issue/services.
Ex: This community a good place to raise children?
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly disagree

8. BIPOLAR QUESTIONS: These are questions that have two extreme answers. Respondent
has to make his or her response between two opposite ends of the scale.
I like going for walks [] [] [] [] [] I like watching movie

9. MATRIX QUESTIONS: It include multiple questions and identical response categories are
assigned. Questions are placed one under another, forming a matrix. Response categories are
placed along the top and a list of questions down the side.
Please let us know your weekly schedule of the following:
 Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

Gym

Aerobics

Eating
(Dinner/Lun
ch)

Drink
(Alcoholic
beverages)
ADVANTAGES
• They are cost-effective
• They are easy to analyse
• They require less time and energy to administer
• Questionnaire offer the possibility of anonymity.
• They reduce bias as interviewer is not present.
• They are used for large sample size.
• Questionnaires are less intrusive than phone or face-to-face interview.
DISADVANTAGES
• They are not suitable for all. For ex, children, blind and illiterates.
• Low response rate.
• They are chance of misinterpretation.
• People can lie and answer the question vaguely.
• Questionnaire provide only superficial information.
INTERVIEW
The interview is a process of communication or interaction in which the subjects or
interviewee gives the needed information verbally in a face – to –face situation.

Interviewing is a popular way of gathering information in qualitative research. Interview

provides a wide range of data. It provides information about person’s feelings, perceptions
and opinions. Interview requires high – level questioning skills and active participation.

Questions are generally open-ended, and responses are documented in thorough, detailed
notes. However some interviews use structured quantitative response categories.
DEFINITONS
An interview is a conversation between two or more
people(interviewer and interviewee) where questions are asked
by interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW

1.Structured Interview (Directive Interview)

It is a means of data collection in which the interviewer has an interview

schedule in which the question are listed in the order in which they are to
be answered. These interviews are also known as standardized
interviews.
MERITS

• Data from one interview to the next one are easily comparable.

• Attention is not diverted to irrelevant and time-consuming

conversation.
DEMERITS

• The scope of exploration of information of data is limited.

• The way in which the interview is structured may be such that the

respondents views are minimized and investigator’s own biases

regarding the problems under study are assessed.

2. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
(NONDIRECTIVE INTERVIEW)
These interviews are also known as nonstandardized interviews. It is a method
wherein the questions can be changed to meet the respondents intelligence,
understanding and beliefs. Questions are changed based on how each individual
persons responds to the questions. In this type of interview, the interviewer
encourages the respondent to talk freely about given topic with minimum
prompting.
MERITS

• It is not formalized and has open-ended questions, where

there is opportunity to ask questions which are not planned
before.

• The aim is to explore the information from the respondents.

DEMERITS

• The data obtained from one interview is not comparable to the data
from the next.

• Time may be wasted in unproductive conversation

• There is no order or sequence in this interview.

• This require more skills on the part of the researcher.

3. SEMISTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
It is a flexible method that allows new questions to be brought up during the
interview, depending upon the situation during the interview.
4. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW
This is an intensive and investigative interview conducted and aimed at studying
the respondents opinion and emotions on the basis of interview guide. This
requires more training and interpersonal skills than structured interviewing. This
is designed to encourage free expressions of affectively chaged information.
5. FOCUSED GROUP INTERVIEW
• It is an unstructured group interview technique where 8-12 members are
brought together under the guidance of a trained interviewer, to focus on a
specific phenomenon. The researcher tries to focus his or her attention on a
particular aspect of a problem. It is a carefully planned discussion where the
interviewer guides discussion according to written set of questions or topics to
be covered. Here, special attention is given to specific topics or ideas.
MERITS
• Wide range of information is collected.
• It stimulates new ideas and creative concepts.
• It increases excitement in a group.
• It involves many participants at one time.
DEMERITS
• There are chances of client and researcher bias.
• It is difficult to moderate.
• It is difficult to code, analyse and interpret.
• It is not a representative of general population.
TELEPHONE INTERVIEW
• It is a nonpersonal method of data collection. This method of collecting
information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is used
widely in industrial surveys particularly in developed regions.
MERITS
• More flexible and quick way of obtaining information.
• Cost is relatively less and rate of response is high.
• Access to respondent is easy through a telephone directory.
• No field staff is required and wider coverage of sample is possible.
DEMERITS
• Difficult to establish rapport between respondent and the interviewer.
• Surveys are limited to respondents who have telephone facilities.
• Respondents characteristics, facial expressions and environment cannot be
observed.
• Possibility of bias of interviewer is more.
INTERVIEW PROCESS
1. Preparation for interview
2. Pre-interview introduction
3. Developing rapport
4. Carrying the interview forward
5. Recording the interview
6. Closing the interview
1. PREPARATION OF INTERVIEW
• Fix up appointment: Interviewer should fix up the topic and time of interview
with subject ahead of time. It would save time of interviewer.
• Appearance and dress: The interviewer should dress in a fashion fairly familiar
and with due regards to the sensibilities of people who will be interviewed. The
interviewer should be pleasant and communicate a genuine interest.
• Familiarity with interview schedule: The interview schedule must be studied
carefully, and the interviewer must practice reading it aloud to be very familiar
with all the questions. The interviewer must also be able to list items to
respondents without errors.
2. PRE-INTERVIEW INTRODUCTION
• Researcher must introduce himself or herself to all respondents respectfully as per their
cultural practices.
• Identify the respondent by name.
• Choose a setting with as little distraction as possible.
• Explain the purpose of the interview.
• Address terms of confidentiality
• Explain the format of the interview.
• Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
• Ask them if they have any quaetions.
3. DEVELOPING RAPPORT
After primary introduction, the researcher starts developing rapport with
respondents. This is developed through confidence building and understanding
the concerns of the respondents by beginning the conversation on general topics.
4. CARRYING THE INTERVIEW FORWARD
• Start the interview
• Ask only one question at a time
• Repeat a question if necessary.
• Try to make sure that the subject understands the questions.
• Listen carefully to the subjects answer
• Observe the subjects facial expressions, gestures and ton of voice
• Allow the subject sufficient time to answer the questions.
• Do not show signs of surprise, shock or anger
• Maintain a neutral attitude with respect to controversial issues during the interview.
• Take note of answers that seem to be vague or ambiguous
• Ask additional questions to follow up clues or to obtain additional information
• Do not hurry the interview. If silence is too prolonged, introduce a stimulus.
5. RECORDING THE INTERVIEW
• It is essential to record responses as they take place.
• Good information can be taken by note-taking
• A tape recorder should be used to record the responses of respondent.
• Shorthand should be used to record responses.
6. CLOSING THE INTERVIEW
• After the interview is over, a polite ;eave of the respondent should be taken,
thanking him or her with a friendly smile and saying goodbye.
ADVANTAGES
• Interview are useful to obtain information about people’s feelings, perceptions
and promise
• Interviews allow more detailed questions to be asked
• High response rate is achieved
• Meaning of questions can be clarified.
• Interviews are not influenced by others in the group
DISADVANTAGES
• Interviews are time-consuming and are costly affairs
• Different interviewers may understand and translate interviews in different
ways.
• There are high degree chances of interviews biases.
MEASUREMENTS
The measurements is the important method of data collection. In this standardized
measurements are used to meaure variables. Ex: scientific instruments such as
thermometer and weighing scale are instruments for physical ,easures of temperature
and weight respectively.
Measurements mean to measure the dimensions, quantity or capacity of objects or
events to describe its charcateristics. It usually gives a quantitative meaning. A numeral
is a symbol or the form 1,2,3…..and so on.
When quantitative meaning is given to the numerals, it becomes numbers. It is easy to
understand measurements used in natural sciences which measures length, weight and
volume.
Measurements used in psychological, sociological, educational characteristics and
nursing care standards are difficult to understand unless assignment of numerals
to objects or events are made according to some accepted rules set up on
theoretical basis e.g., aptitude scale, nursing standard scale.

A scale is a technique that assigns a numerical score in order to place individuals

along a continuum with respect to the attribute or phenomenon being measured.
TYPE SOF MEASUREMENTS
• Physiological measurements
• Psychological measurements
• Sociological measurements
a. Physiological Measurement
• It can be classified as In vivo and In vitro
• In vivo includes measurements of those which are performed directly with in or on living organisms
themselves, such as blood
• In vitro measurements by contrast is performed outside the organisms bosy such as measurements of
blood glucose level
Physiological measurement can also be classified as:
• Physicla measurement: Temperature, blood pressure
• Chemical measurement: Blood sugar level, blood urea level
• Microbiological measurement: Bacterial count
• Cytological measurement: Tissue biopsy
b. Psychological Measurement
• It mainly makes use of psychological tests. It is an instrument designed to
measure only a certain aspect of human behaviour. These tests give objective and
standardized description of behaviour, quantified by numerical score.
MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE
It assesses feeling of an individual towards work, play and group. The individual reacts to these
statements verbally expressing their disapproval agreement or disagreement to the items on the
scale. Type of attitude scales are rating scale, Likert scale and semantic scale.
1. RATING SCALE: Rating is the judgement done by one person, the rater about another
person, the rate. If a person express his own performance, knowledge and attitude, it is
called self-rating.
2. In rating scale method, the characteristics is viewed as a continuum and it is represented as a
line. The line is divided equally horizontally or vertically. Each part is called as a point or
step. Scores are assigned by the rater. The individual or the investigator rates the behaviour
being observed.
LIKERT SCALE
It is a type of composite measure of attitude that involves summation of score on a
set of items to which respondents are asked to indicate their degree of agreement.
SEMANTIC SCALE
It is a technique used to measure attitudes that asks subject to rate a concept of
interest on a series of 7 point bipolar rating scale appropriate adjectives should be
used. This is highly flexible and easy to construct.
Ex: Stong _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ weak
c. Sociological Measurement
It measures beliefs, cultures and social interactions.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
• Selection of subjects
• Collecting data
• Maintaining control
• Protecting the study integrity
• Solving Problems
1. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS
Depending on the nature of the study, whether the selection of subjects should be
done initially or during data collection should be thought out. Decide the method
of selection of samples and the number of sample needed for the present study.
2. COLLECTING DATA
Data must be collected as per the plan. It should be consistent for each unit. If there
is no uniform pattern of data collection then the accuracy of the information may
be altered.
3. MAINTAINING CONTROL
To keep up the credibility of the study, the extraneous variables need to be
controlled from affecting the study. Controls are built in the plan to minimize the
influence of intervening forces on study findings.
4. PROTECTING THE STUDY INTEGRITY
The integrity of the study can be maintained by maintaining controls and
consistency during sample selection and data collection. Any slight change in one
component can alter the whole process and threaten validity of the outcome. So the
researcher has to look into the whole process of data collection rather than some of
the elements of data collection.
5. SOLVING PROBLEMS
Problems are the challenges the researcher faces during data collection. It may be
researcher’s own problem or the institutions problem. Whatever may be cause for
the problem, it need to be sorted out and solved to discover something useful or
valuable the data collection.