THE HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM

THE EYE
 IN THIS SECTION . . .
• ANATOMY OF HUMAN EYE
• IMAGE FORMATION BY HUMAN EYE
• METHOD OF LIGHT DETECTION
• RETINAL PROCESSING
 HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM

Exposure
Image formation Detection Processing
Control

•Cornea •Iris/pupil •Retina •Brain

•Lens •Photoreceptor •Rods
sensitivity •Cones
 HUMAN EYE

Ciliary Muscle
Sclera Ear side (Temporal)
Iris Vitreous Humor

Fovea
Pupil Eyelens
Retina

Optic Nerve
Cornea
Nose side (Nasal)
Aqueous Humor

Suspensory ligament Choroid

• HUMAN EYE IS A COMPLETE IMAGING SYSTEM.
 IMAGE FORMATION

Object Image

• THE CURVED SURFACES OF THE EYE FOCUS THE

IMAGE ONTO THE BACK SURFACE OF THE EYE.
 IMAGE FORMATION
• DISTANCE BETWEEN CENTER OF LENS AND RETINA (FOCAL LENGTH) VARY
BETWEEN 14-17 MM.
• WHEN OBJECT IS 3 M OR MORE AWAY, F = 17MM WITH LOWEST REFRACTIVE
POWER.
• IMAGE LENGTH H = 17(MM) X (15/100)
 CORNEA

• THE OUTER WALL OF THE

EYE IS FORMED BY THE
HARD, WHITE SCLERA.
Sclera
• CORNEA IS THE CLEAR
Cornea
PORTION OF THE SCLERA.
• 2/3 OF THE REFRACTION
TAKES PLACE AT THE
CORNEA.
 IRIS AND PUPIL
Iris
• COLORED IRIS CONTROLS THE
SIZE OF THE OPENING (PUPIL)
WHERE THE LIGHT ENTERS.
Pupil
• PUPIL DETERMINES THE
AMOUNT OF LIGHT, LIKE THE
APERTURE OF A CAMERA.

Iris open Iris closed

Dilated pupil Constricted pupil
 LENS
Ciliary muscle
• EYE LENS IS MADE OF
TRANSPARENT FIBERS IN A CLEAR
Lens MEMBRANE.
• SUSPENDED BY SUSPENSORY
LIGAMENT.
Suspensory • USED AS A FINE FOCUSING
Ligament MECHANISM BY THE EYE;
PROVIDES 1/3 OF EYE’S TOTAL
Transparent REFRACTING POWER.
Fibers
• NON-UNIFORM INDEX OF
REFRACTION.

Cross section of the eye lens

 ACCOMMODATION
Distant object • THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS
ATTACH THE LENS TO THE CILIARY
MUSCLE.
• WHEN THE MUSCLE CONTRACTS,
THE LENS BULGES OUT IN THE
Relaxed muscle BACK, DECREASING ITS FOCAL
Taut ligaments LENGTH.
Near object
• THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE
LENS CHANGES SHAPE TO
FOCUS IS CALLED
ACCOMMODATION.
Contracted muscle
Slack ligaments
AQUEOUS HUMOR AND VITREOUS HUMOR

• TRANSPARENT GELATINOUS
Vitreous Humor
LIQUID FILLING THE EYE.
• PROVIDES NUTRIENTS TO THE
CORNEA AND EYE LENS.
• ALSO HELPS MAINTAIN THE
Aqueous Humor EYEBALL SHAPE WITH ITS
PRESSURE.
 RETINA
• RETINA IS THE PHOTOSENSITIVE
“DETECTOR” FOR THE EYE.
• TWO TYPES OF RECEPTORS IN THE
Retina RETINA: RODS FOR LOW LIGHT LEVEL,
AND CONES FOR COLOR.
• LOCATED AT THE CENTER OF THE
Fovea RETINA, FOVEA CONTAINS A GREATER
CONCENTRATION OF CONES.
• SIGNALS FROM THE RECEPTORS LEAVE
Optic Nerve
THROUGH THE OPTIC NERVE TO THE
BRAIN.
 PLEXIFORM LAYER
• THE RETINA IS MADE OF THREE
LAYERS:
• PLEXIFORM LAYER IS A NETWORK OF
Fovea NERVES WHICH CARRY THE SIGNALS
FROM THE PHOTO RECEPTORS.
Photo receptors • PHOTO RECEPTORS.
• CHOROID PROVIDES NOURISHMENT
Light TO THE RECEPTORS, AS WELL AS
Plexiform Layer ABSORB ANY LIGHT THAT DIDN’T GET
ABSORBED BY THE PHOTO
RECEPTORS, LIKE A ANTI-HALATION
BACKING IN FILM.

Optic Nerve Choroid

 RODS AND CONES
Synaptic endings
Cell nucleus
Inner segments

Outer segments

Rod Cone
• HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO LOW LIGHT  Sensitive to high light level
LEVEL OR SCOTOPIC CONDITIONS. or photopic conditions.
• BLACK AND WHITE.  Three types of cones
• DISPERSED IN THE PERIPHERY OF THE responsible for color vision.
RETINA.  Concentrated in the fovea.
 BRIGHTNESS ADAPTATION
• HVS CAN VIEW LARGE
INTENSITY RANGE (1010)
• BUT SIMULTANEOUS PERCEIVED
INTENSITY RANGE IS MUCH
SMALLER.
• IF ONE IS AT BA INTENSITY
(OUTSIDE) AND WALK INTO A
DARK THEATER, HE CAN ONLY
DISTINGUISH UP TO BB. IT WILL
TAKE MUCH LONGER FOR EYE
TO ADAPT FOR THE SCOTOPIC
VISION TO PICK UP.
 ADAPTATION
• WHY CAN’T YOU SEE IMMEDIATELY
Photopic (cones) AFTER YOU ENTER A MOVIE THEATER
FROM DAYLIGHT?
Threshold of detection

• THE THRESHOLD OF DETECTION

(log scale)

Scotopic (rods)
CHANGES WITH OVERALL LIGHT
LEVEL.
• THE SWITCH IS QUITE GRADUAL,
UNTIL THE SENSITIVITIES OF CONES
AND RODS CROSS OVER: AT ABOUT
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 7 MINUTES IN THE DARK.
Time in dark (minutes)
 WEBER RATIO
• HVS’S SENSITIVITY TO INTENSITY
I I+ I
DIFFERENCE DIFFER AT DIFFERENT
BACKGROUND INTENSITIES.
• WEBER RATIO: I/I: JUST
NOTICEABLE INTENSITY DIFFERENCE
VERSUS BACKGROUND INTENSITY. IT
IS A FUNCTION OF LOG I.
 SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST

• THE PERCEIVED BRIGHTNESS OF INNER CIRCLE ARE DIFFERENT DUE TO

DIFFERENT BACKGROUND INTENSITY LEVELS EVEN IF THEY ARE
IDENTICAL.
 DISTRIBUTION OF PHOTORECEPTORS
Visual Axis
Temporal Nasal • CONES ARE CONCENTRATED
80 º 80º IN THE FOVEA.
60 º 60 º
40 º • RODS PREDOMINATE THE
40 º
20 º
Number of receptors per mm2

20 º
0º Blind spot PERIPHERY.
160 • THERE IS A BLIND SPOT
140 Rods
120 WHERE THERE ARE NO
100 PHOTORECEPTORS, AT THE
80
60 POINT WHERE THE NERVES
40 Cones EXIT THE EYE (OPTIC NERVE).
20
60 º 40 º 20 º 0 º 20 º 40 º 60 º 80 º
Angle
•
HUMAN
HUMAN CONE RESPONSE TO COLOR
VISION
• THREE CONE TYPES (S,I,L) CORRESPOND TO B,G,R

S I L

Relative response

400 460 490 500 530 600 650 700

Wavelength (nm)

Blue Cyan Green Red

 RETINA
Light Cones

Rods

To optic nerve Bipolar

cells
Amicrine
cells
Ganglion
cells
Horizontal
• THE RETINA IS MADE OF NETWORK OF NERVE CELLS. cells
• THE NETWORK WORKS TOGETHER TO REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF
INFORMATION IN A PROCESS CALLED LATERAL INHIBITION.
 HERMANN GRID

• ILLUSTRATES LATERAL INHIBITION.

 HERMANN GRID

A B

• POINT A LOOKS DARKER BECAUSE THERE ARE 4 INHIBITORY INPUTS

• POINT B LOOKS LIGHTER BECAUSE THERE ARE ONLY 2 INHIBITORY INPUTS
 MACH BANDS

Actual
brightness

Perceived
by you
 EYE DEFECTS
Object at infinity
• IMAGE FOCUSES ON THE
RETINA FOR A NORMAL EYE.

Normal
• DISTANT OBJECTS LOOK
BLURRY FOR A MYOPIC (NEAR
SIGHTED) EYE.
Myopic

• NEAR OBJECTS LOOK BLURRY

FOR A HYPEROPIC (FAR
SIGHTED) EYE.
Hyperopic

Eyes at relax state.

 MYOPIA - NEAR SIGHTEDNESS
Far object • DISTANT OBJECTS LOOK
BLURRY BECAUSE THE EYE
Myopic eye relaxed
Blurry
CANNOT RELAX ANY FARTHER
SO THAT THE IMAGE IS
Near object FOCUSED BEFORE THE RETINA.
Myopic eye relaxed
In focus • NEAR OBJECT IN FOCUS
WITHOUT
Far object ACCOMMODATION.
Myopia corrected • CORRECTED WITH A
with a negative lens NEGATIVE LENS.

The virtual image from the diverging lens appears to be closer.

 HYPEROPIA - FAR SIGHTEDNESS
Far object
• NEAR OBJECTS LOOK
Hyperopic eye BLURRY BECAUSE THE EYE
Partially accommodated CANNOT
In focus
Near object ACCOMMODATE
Hyperopic eye ENOUGH FOR NEAR
Fully accommodated OBJECTS.
Blurry
Near object • FAR OBJECT IN FOCUS.

Hyperopia • CORRECTED WITH A

corrected with a POSITIVE LENS.
positive lens

Light from the converging lens looks as though it is coming from the distance.
 CONTACT LENS
Contact lens • CONTACT LENS IS AN
Cornea
ALTERNATIVE TO CORRECTIVE
LENSES.
• CHANGES THE CURVATURE OF
THE CORNEA BY ADHERING TO
THE SURFACE WITH SOME
Fluid FLUID.
 YOUR EYE CARE
Go see a doctor if you think
there is something wrong with
your eye-

Early detection is essential to

keeping damage low and
preventing permanent loss
of your vision.