Theoretical Geophysics
Teacher: Dr K. I. Konstantinou
Lesson 1: Plate Tectonics
Textbooks that will be used throughout this course:
Fowler C. M. R., 2004. The solid Earth
Cambridge University Press
Shearer P. M., 2010. Introduction to Seismology,
Cambridge University Press
Evaluation:
Quiz after every class (50%)
Final examination (50%)
Some background knowledge I assume you have:
> Linear Algebra (matrices, solution of linear systems)
> Calculus (differentiation/integration of functions)
> Statistics (just the basics)
> Physics (classic mechanics, wave theory)
> Geology (just the basics)
* Would be a good idea to refresh something you do not
remember so well !!!
What is Geophysics???
Geophysics is the branch of Earth Sciences that uses
the principles and methods of Physics in order to
study the Earth's interior, oceans and atmosphere.
In this class we will only focus on solid Earth geophysics
which includes seismic wave generation/propagation,
the gravity and magnetic field of the Earth and its
internal structure from the surface down to its center.
Milestones in the history of Geophysics:
1897 Emil Wiechert identifies the mantle
1906 John Milne identifies the crust
1909 A. Mohorovicic discovers the Moho
1912 Beno Gutenberg identifies the core
1936 Inge Lehmann discovers the inner core
Theory of lithospheric(*) plates or commonly referred as “Theory of plate tectonics”
(*) In Greek lithos-sphere = rock and sphere
The boundaries of the tectonic plates can be of three kinds:
> Divergent boundaries (also called accreting or constructive) when plates
move away from each other. At these boundaries new material coming from
the mantle is added to the lithosphere (e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
> Convergent boundaries (also called consuming or destructive) when plates
approach each other and the one subducts underneath the other (e.g. Chile).
> Conservative boundaries where lithosphere is neither created or destroyed.
the plates in this case move relative to each other. These plate boundaries
are represented by large transform faults (e.g. San Andreas, Dead Sea Faults)
Summary of plate motions and plate boundary types
How can we measure the relative velocity of two tectonic plates???
> On land it is possible to do a survey of displacements over large distances
and long periods of time to stream channels or even roads.
> By using satellite laser-ranging system (SLR) to determine differences in
distance between two sites on the Earth's surface over a period of years.
> By using the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites to find the displacement
of two points on the Earth's surface as a function of time.
> By using fault-plane solutions (or focal mechanisms) of earthquakes which show
the relative motion of the two fault blocks (more on this later in the class).
Examples of boundary types Examples of combinations of transform faults
NOTE: “Half-spreading rate” in our example is 2 cm/yr
“Full-spreading rate” then is equal to 4 cm/yr
Each divergent plate will be growing by 2 cm per year
A simplifying assumption: The Earth is flat (...or back to the Middle Ages!)
BUT we know that the Earth is NOT flat!!! How do plate motions occur then?
Euler's Theorem: Every displacement from one position to another on the
surface of the Earth can be regarded as a rotation about a suitably chosen
axis passing through the center of the Earth. In this case the relative velocity
will be v = (omega)*R*sin(theta)
Question: What happens when theta = 0 or 180 degrees?
The Earth is not static: Plate boundaries change with time!!!
Triple junctions(*) and how they can change in time
(*) Triple junction is the name given to a place at which three plates meet
A stable triple junction is the one whose configuration does not change with time
A ridge-ridge-ridge triple junction is always stable
A fault-fault-fault triple junction is always unstable
Question: Is the triple junction shown above stable or unstable?
Can we measure absolute (rather than relative) plate motions???
Absolute plate motion is the motion of the plate relative to a fixed point
Hotspot is the surface expression (i.e. volcanism) of a mantle plume
Assuming the mantle to move VERY slowly, then hotspots are fixed points
Using the Hawaii islands it is possible to find the absolute motion of the Pacific plate
How can we learn what were the plate motions in the past???
By using the magnetic field of the Earth
Magnetic field of a dipole The Earth's magnetic field
The angle between the magnetic
field and the horizontal is called
Inclination I where tanI = Z/H
or tanI = 2*cot(theta) = 2*tan(lat)
lat = 90-theta (magnetic latitude)
-> If we know the inclination I in a sample of rock, we can estimate the latitude
of the location it was originally magnetized!!!!
Rocks get permanently magnetized by the Earth's magnetic field when:
1. Volcanic rocks cool below the Curie temperature and the grains of iron
minerals acquire spontaneous magnetization.
2. Sedimentary rocks get deposited and any previously magnetized small grains
will align themselves with the Earth's magnetic field as they fall. OR
3. Sedimentary rocks acquire magnetization during the chemical growth of
iron oxide grains as in sandstone. When the grains reach some critical size,
they become magnetized in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
How does all this connect with plate tectonics??? Answer: Mid-ocean ridges
First evidence of a spreading sea-floor was obtained by Vine and Mathews in 1960s
and gave strong arguments in favor of Wegener's continental drift theory
The world stress map: direction of stress correlate with directions of plate motions
At least to first-order the forces moving the plates are responsible for the stresses
in the lithosphere (i.e. absolute plate motion aligns with horizontal stresses)
Summary of today's lesson
(Parts of chapters 1 & 2 from Fowler's book)
> Definition of solid Earth Geophysics
> Main elements of plate tectonics
> How plates move in present-day
> How plates moved in the past
> Forces that move the plates also induce stresses
