THE BODY AS A WHOLE:

INTRODUCTION TO THE
HUMAN BODY
Anatomy
• study of the
structure of an
organism and the
relationship of its
parts.
• from the Greek
word “tomos”
(cutting ) and “ana”
(up).
Specific areas
Gross anatomy involves the study of
body parts that are visible to the naked
eye.

Microscopic anatomy - studies very

small body parts and requires the use of
a special magnifying instrument called
a microscope.
Specific areas
– Systemic anatomy is a division of
anatomy that studies the
parts of the body by system.

– A system refers to a group of organs

that perform common functions such
as the organs of the cardiovascular
system and the tissues of the muscular
system.
Physiology
• is the study of the functions of the living organism
and its parts.

• derived from the Greek words “logos” (study of )

and “physis” (nature).

• helps us understand how the body works.

• comprehend the mechanisms involved to maintain

balance and order (homeostasis) in the human
body despite the presence of hostile forces in the
environment.
 Physiology can be subdivided into:

• type of organisms

• level of organization

• specific system
 Physiology can be subdivided into:

• The type of
organisms involved
whether it is animal
physiology or plant
physiology or
human physiology
Physiology can be subdivided into:

• The level of
organization
– molecular level
(molecular
physiology) or
– cellular level
(cellular physiology)
Physiology can be subdivided into:

• The specific
system
– the nervous system
(neurophysiology)
or
– respiratory system
(respiratory
physiology)
 Before we go further, it is important to
understand the principle of complementarity of
structure and function. Why? Because the
structure of a body part determines the function
it can perform. For example, bones are made
up of tissues that contain collagen and minerals
that give bone its flexibility and strength. These
characteristics enable the bone to support the
weight of the body. On the other hand, the
walls of the air sacs in the lungs are very thin to
allow the exchange of gases and provide
oxygen for the body
• anatomy and physiology requires us to understand
how the body is organized.

• know how the parts of the body fit together and how
effective organization leads to effective functioning
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
 LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Chemical)
• The chemical level
of organization
– is the simplest level
of organization.
– CHEMISTRY deals with
the study of atoms that
are the building blocks
of molecules.
– Molecules then interact
and combine to form
the organelles.
 LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Organelles)
• Organelles
– tiny organs inside the cell.
– Made up of molecules
arranged to perform
specific functions.
– Without organelles, the
cells would die.
– Chemical function is to
supply the basic building
blocks and specialized
structures required for the
next higher level of body
structure- the cells.
 LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Cells)
• Cells
– basic units for all
living things.
– common features,
cells become
specialized so that
each type is able to
perform specific
functions
 LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Tissue)
• Tissue
– a group of cells with similar structure and
function that are able to meet the structural and
functional needs of the body.
– considered the “fabric” of the body.
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Tissue)
• Organs
– groups of tissues
that are arranged
such that they
perform a special
function.

– heart, lungs,
kidneys and spleen
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Tissue)
• Organ system
– most complex of the
organizational units of the
body.
– a group of organs
classified as a unit
because of a common
function or set of
functions.

– skeletal system (bones,

tendons, ligaments and
cartilages that support the
body and protect other
organ systems from
harm.)
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Tissue)
• Organisms
– made up of different
organ systems that
keep it alive and adapt
to the forces in the
environment.
– more than the sum of
its parts.

– repair, reproduce and

maintain different
processes and
mechanisms needed
for survival.
 As you study anatomy and physiology, do
not simply memorize and think of the parts of
the body as if it were separate and isolated
from the rest of the body. One should
remember that the information you get from
individual body parts always contribute to the
function of the body as a whole. Memorizing
helps, but it is more important to integrate
and conceptualize factual information so
that your understanding of human structure
and function is related not to a part of the
body but to the body as a whole.
11 Organ Systems of the
Body
11 Organ Systems of the
Body
• Integumentary System
• Skeletal System
• Muscular System
• Nervous System
• Endocrine System
• Cardiovascular System
• Lymphatic System
• Respiratory System
• Digestive System
• Urinary System
• Reproductive System
Integumentary System:
• consists of skin, hair,
nails and sweat
glands.

• provides protection,
regulates temperature,
prevents water loss,
and produces vitamin
D precursors.
Skeletal System
• consists of bones,
associated with
cartilages and joints .

• provides protection
and support, allows
body movements,
produces blood cells,
and stores minerals
and fat.
Muscular System
• consists of muscles
attached to the
skeleton.

• enables the body

to move , maintain
its posture, and
produce body heat.
Nervous System
• A major regulatory
system that detects
sensations and
controls movements,
physiological
processes, and
intellectual functions.

• Consists of the
brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and sensory
receptors
Endocrine System
• consists of glands,
such as the pituitary,
that secrete
hormones.

• a major regulatory
system that influences
metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and
many other functions.
Cardiovascular System
• consists of the heart,
blood vessels, and
blood.

• transports nutrients,
waste products, gases,
and hormones
throughout the body
and

• plays a role in the

immune response and
the regulation of body
temperature.
 Lymphatic System
• consists of the lymph
vessels, lymph nodes,
and other lymph
organs .
• removes foreign
substances from the
blood and the lymph,
• combats disease,
• maintains tissue fluid
balance, and
• absorbs fat from the
digestive tract
Respiratory System
• consists of the
lungs and
respiratory
passages

• exchanges oxygen
and carbon dioxide
between the blood
and air and
regulates blood pH.
Digestive System
• consists of the mouth,
esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and
accessory organs .
• performs the
mechanical and
chemical processes of
digestion,
• absorption of
nutrients, and
• elimination of wastes.
Urinary System
• consists of the
kidneys, urinary
bladder, and ducts
that carry urine.

• removes waste
products from the
blood and
regulates blood pH,
ion balance, and
water balance.
Reproductive System
• Female Reproductive System
– consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus,
mammary glands, and associated structures.

– produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization

and fetal development;

– produces milk for the newborn;

– produces hormones that influence sexual

function and behaviors.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
• Male Reproductive
System
– consists of the testes,
accessory structures,
ducts, and penis.

– produces and transfers

sperm cells to the
female and produces
hormones that
influence sexual
functions and behaviors
Characteristics of Life
Attributes that characterize life
in humans:
• Responsiveness or irritability:
– ability of an organism to sense, monitor
and respond to changes in the
environment and make the necessary
adaptations to help maintain its life.
• E.g. when we pull
our hand away
when we touch a
very hot surface.
We pull away from
the painful stimulus
to prevent further
damage to cells and
tissues.
• Metabolism:
– chemical reactions that take
place inside the body.

– includes the steps involved

in the breakdown and use of
nutrient materials to produce
energy and the
transformation of one
material into the other.

– E.g. if we eat and absorb

more sugar than what is
immediately needed by the
cells, the body stores it in
another form - fat that can be
stored in the body
• Growth
• results to the increase
in the size of all or part
of the organism
because of increased
number or size of cells
• Differentiation:
– refers to the changes
in the structure and
function of the cell
from general to
specialize.

– E.G. following
fertilization, generalized
cells specialize to
become specific cell
types, such as skin,
bone, muscle, or nerve
cells.
• Reproduction:
– the formation of
new cells or new
organisms.

– permits growth,
wound repair, and
replacement of
dead or aging cells
on a regular basis.
Homeostasis
HOMEOSTASIS
• existence and maintenance of a dynamic
state of equilibrium in the internal
environment.
• involves the maintenance of a variable that
allows internal conditions to change and vary
but always within relatively narrow limits.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• communication network to accomplish

self regulation

1. Receptor or sensor mechanism

2. Control center or Integrating Center
3. Effector mechanism
4. Feedback
FEEDBACK LOOP
 Homeostatic Control
Mechanisms
1. Receptor or sensor mechanism:
functions:
- identifies the element that is being
controlled and

- responds to any changes or stimuli that

may occur from the normal set point.
FEEDBACK LOOP
 Homeostatic Control
Mechanisms
2. Control Center or Integrating
Center
Functions:
- Analyzes and integrates information from the
sensors, compares information with the normal set
point and determines the appropriate response.
FEEDBACK LOOP
Homeostatic Control
Mechanisms
• Effector Mechanism:
Functions:
– Provides a means for the control center to
provide a response (output) to the stimulus.
– organs, such as muscles or glands that have a
direct influence to a controlled variable.
FEEDBACK LOOP
Homeostatic Control
Mechanisms
• Feedback:

– The activity of the effectors is regulated

by feedback of information regarding
their own effects on a controlled
variable.

– Feedback influences the stimulus either

by depressing it (negative feedback) or
enhancing it (positive feedback).
WHAT IS A NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
MECHANISM???
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
MECHANISM
• Function to maintain homeostasis.

• Happens when the response

diminishes the original stimulus.

• Ex. Body temperature

Blood Glucose
RESPONSE TO INCREASE BODY
TEMPERATURE
BLOOD GLUCOSE
 WHAT IS POSITIVE
FEEDBACKMECHANISM???
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
• Usually NOT homeostatic and are rare in healthy
individuals.

• Happens when the response reinforces the original

stimulus.

• Usually creates a cycle leading away from

homeostasis and in some cases results in death.

• there are a few of positive feedback mechanisms

that do operate under normal body conditions but in
a limited way
Terminology and the Body
Plan
Anatomical Position
• A standard reference
position used to
describe relationships
of one part to the
other.

• The body is erect (or

standing) with arms on
the side and with the
head, eyes, palms and
toes pointing forward.
Directional Terms
(LAB)
 Directional terms
• Help to describe
the exact location
of a structure in
relation to another.

• Refer to the body in

anatomical
position,regardless
of its actual
position.
Directional terms
• Superior: refers to a structure that is above
another

• Inferior: refers to a structure below another

• Anterior or Ventral - means toward the

front of the body

• Posterior or Dorsal - means toward the

back of the body

• Medial - means towards the body's midline

• Lateral - means away from the
midline

• Proximal - indicates closest to the

point of origin of a part, or to the
point of attachment of a limb to the
body trunk

• Distal - indicates farther from the

point of origin of a part, or to the
point of attachment of a limb to the
body trunk

• Superficial - means toward or on

the body surface

• Deep - away from the body surface

Body Planes and Sections
 Sagittal Plane
• Runs lengthwise
(longitudinally)

• Divides the body into right and

left regions

• A sagittal section that is made

exactly in the midline is
called midsagittal plane

• A plane that is not in the exact

midline is called a parasagittal
plane
• Frontal (Coronal) Plane
– Runs vertically from right to left.
– divides the body into anterior and
posterior regions.

• Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

– Runs parallel to the surface of the
ground and divides the body into
superior and inferior parts
Abdominal Regions
Abdominal Regions
• 9 regions
– epigastric,
– right and left hypochondriac,
– umbilical,
– right and left lumbar,
– hypogastric, and
– right and left iliac

– Used as reference points for locating the underlying

organs
– Formed by running 2 horizontal and 2 vertical imaginary
lines making an imaginary tic-tac-toe figure in the
abdomen
9 ABDOMINAL REGIONS
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
• Quadrants:
– right upper,
– left upper,
– right lower,
– left lower

– Frequently used to identify the site of

abdominopelvic pain or locate some type
of pathology like a tumor or an abscess
Body Cavities
 Body Cavities
• The internal organs
of the body are
contained in
body cavities
• Two major closed
body cavities:
• Dorsal cavity
• Ventral cavity
Dorsal Cavity
• Located in the posterior
region of the body

• Further subdivided into:

• Cranial cavity (skull) -
encases the brain.

• Vertebral cavity (spinal

cavity or vertebral
canal) - extends down the
vertebral column and
encloses the spinal cord.
 Ventral Cavity
• Found in the anterior region of the trunk
• Subdivided into:
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominal cavity
• Pelvic cavity

• A thin membrane, the serosa, covers the walls of

the ventral cavity and the outer surfaces of the
organs.
• Parietal serosa - membrane lining the walls
• Visceral serosa - portion covering the organs
Thoracic Cavity
• Located superior to the abdominopelvic cavity

• Surrounded by the ribs and chest muscles

• Separated from the abdominal cavity by the

muscular diaphragm Divided into right and left
parts by a structure called mediastinum

• The two lungs are located on either side of

the mediastinum
Abdominal Cavity

• Bounded primarily
by the abdominal
muscles
• Contains the
stomach,
intestines, liver,
spleen, pancreas,
and kidneys.
 Pelvic Cavity
• Small space enclosed by
the bones of the pelvis

• Contains the urinary

bladder, part of the large
intestine, and the internal
reproductive organs

• The abdominal and pelvic

cavities are not physically
separated and are
sometimes called the
abdominopelvic cavity.
PLEASE STUDY YOUR
LESSON
 AND

DO ADVANCE READING

ON
• FUNCTION OF CELL
• DIFFERENT CELL STRUCTURES
• CELL PHYSIOLOGY
– OSMOSIS
( HYPERTONIC,HYPOTONIC AND
ISOTONIC)
– SIMPLE DIFFUSION
– FACILITATED DIFFUSION
– ACTIVE TRANSPORT
– FILTRATION
• CELL METABOLISM
– AEROBIC RESPIRATION
– PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• CELL DIVISION
• MATERIALS TO BE BRING NEXT
WEEK:
– MANILA PAPER
– 3 COLORED WIRES -1 METER; RED,
BLACK AND YELLOW ( PER GROUP)
– PENTEL PEN, PENCILS
THANK YOU!